Short Article Reveals the Undeniable Facts About Sat Essay Samples Godman and How It Can Affect You

Short Article Reveals the Undeniable Facts About Sat Essay Samples Godman and How It Can Affect You The studying sections are made to test reading comprehension, and are extremely similar. Reading process can be finished in lots of ways, and every one of them has its benefits. When you go back do a more sophisticated reading of the post, sure to keep a look out for argument-building procedures and to attempt to stay objective. Always try to remain objective once you return to a more comprehensive reading of your article. In either instance, you'll want to make certain you get a great idea of how the passage is laid out before you do a thorough pass through it. For the reason, you've got to make sure that you find out the method by which the passage is presented before going too deep in the specifics. You must go through the passage several times to make certain you understand it correctly. You'll probably wind up reading through parts of the passage multiple times to make certain to fully understand it. What You Can Do About Sat Essay Samples Godman Starting in the Next Five Minutes Test prep books and internet sites will give lots of problems to practice, but should you discover that you don't understand why you're getting the incorrect answers, you might need to go for additional math tutoring or employment by means of a math course at home. Be certain and mark the questions you skipped so you can easily spot them when you could be prepared to tackle them. Taking away the exam element is intended to draw in more diverse and economically challenged students. Answer the simple questions first. Type of Sat Essay Samples Godman The essay must include a prompt so you can see what it requires to adhere to the prompt. There should be a proper sequence for the SAT essay, keep in mind that it should be divided into several paragraphs where each should be structured in accordance with the importance. It gives you an opportunity to show how effective ly you can read and comprehend a passage and write an essay analyzing the passage. It must be organized into paragraphs. Of course, when you're in a position to write a few relevant paragraphs without making repetitions. A balance of science and problem solving questions provide a sound evaluation of a students overall ability resulting in medical and skilled success. For the remaining ten questions, you will need to discover answers by yourself. A lot of students discover that it's simpler to write body paragraphs initially, and just then compose an introduction. The Argument About Sat Essay Samples Godman Be certain to join my free SAT mailing list prior to going! Factual evidence may also be in the shape of non-numerical details. Don't forget, the new SAT uses articles from all types of publications. Because you may read articles from identical sources the SAT gets material from. One of the very first things to do in order to college is applying. You may be taken ab ack at how frequently students receive their professor's name wrong. If at all possible, students would likewise ask the individuals if they'd be ready to compose a more specific letter at a subsequent date, but having the overall letter is a good starting point, and can come in rather handy. Teach students to read a number of writing prompts. The very last thing you would like is to need to retake the full exam, or, worse yet, not have the ability to apply to a specific college, simply because you took the exam without the essay. A standard question regarding SAT scores is whether the entire mess can be prevented by skipping the essay. The essay score isn't a portion of the 400-1600 score. Your essay rating will appear on every score report you send to colleges, irrespective of whether the school demands an essay. The key for an ideal score on the SAT essay is to utilize your time wisely and remain centered on the job. There's no composite SAT Essay score (the 3 scores aren't added together) and there are not any percentiles. SAT is taken by high school students who want to pursue higher education in the United States. A superb ACT or SAT score is something which you will need to go accepted to the university of your choice, and even more to the point, to find scholarship money. High SAT scores will boost your likelihood of securing admission. A good SAT score is going to be an effective weapon in your arsenal when you'll be applying to a great college. The Bad Secret of Sat Essay Samples Godman Each argument needs to be stated in another paragraph starting from the strongest one. The question isn't really seeking your opinion. The nature of the speech concentrated on the war in Vietnam. Your very first answer is most likely the correct one.

Classroom Management Philosophy Essay - 3504 Words

Classroom Management Plan Theoretical Introduction * Philosophy of classroom management: When I think of classroom management I often picture a classroom in which students learning is being carried out with minimum interruption. Teacher is there as a facilitator of the learning process through authentic learning activities which allow students to share and exchange information through respective and cooperative manner. A description of a good classroom management for some teachers or administrators or even parents may be focused or aimed at the physical order of how the classrooms should look like in terms of students sitting at their seats or teacher pointing at a student to answer her question one by one. I depict the picture†¦show more content†¦I always focus on controlling or for a better word directing the behavior. When a child misbehaves, it should be stated and focused on his behavior, not the child. So the child will know that you always care for him, but do not care for his bad or misjudged behavior. By explaining to the child, â€Å"It is your behav ior that upset me, not you!† will make him understand and want to correct his behavior. Young people are curious creatures who always seek to learn more about the world. They also want to feel good about themselves and have a sense of belonging or know that someone care about them. * A discussion of theorists that clarify my perspective: I believe in Rogers’s Unconditional Positive Regard Theory, which stated that everyone is worthy and acceptable regardless of their behavior. Behavior is the avenue people use to react how they feel about other people, things and their environment. People also act out when their basic needs are not met. I also found myself agreeing with Glasser’s Choice Theory which explained that our behavior at any given time is our best choice to satisfy one or more of our basic needs. By focusing on meeting those basic needs of these young people such as giving them a sense of power by giving them choices, responsibility and right to discuss about classroom rules, encouraging them on a job well attempted, recognizing their unique quality andShow MoreRelatedEssay on Philosophy of Classroom Management2662 Words   |  11 Pages Philosophy of Classroom Management Being a male going into the elementary school education profession, I feel that I can be a postitive male role model for students who might lack that kind of male role model leadership needs. One of the first things that I will convey to my students is my philosophy on classroom management. My philosophy can be summed up in just two words: RESPECT and LEADERSHIP. Respect ï ¿ ¼ Just as the picture describes , in order for me to receive respect ; I must first deliverRead MoreMy Philosophy of Classroom Management Essay3306 Words   |  14 Pages   A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Theoretical Introduction    My philosophy of classroom management is that the management of elementary classrooms require several things.  Ã‚  Among patience, determination and motivation are: flexibility, careful planning and consistency.  Ã‚  A well-managed classroom did not get well-managed without a teacher who planned, had a flexible vision and was determined.  Ã‚  Any new teacher, who is asked, will say they want a classroom with as few behavioral problems as possible as well as one that isRead MoreMy Personal Philosophy Of Classroom Management Plan2060 Words   |  9 PagesClassroom Management Plan A well-organized classroom management plan will be effective in creating a positive classroom environment which can help to activate students’ motivations and facilitate students’ learning. This classroom management plan is designed for a Stage 4 class, Year 8-3 in Mackenzie Secondary College. Philosophy In my personal philosophy of classroom management plan, the considerations about their socio-emotional needs and support students’ learning are key elements in creatingRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Classroom Management997 Words   |  4 PagesTheoretical Introduction ï‚ § Philosophy of Classroom Management When I think of my future classroom, I imagine it to a home. I plan for my students and I to be a â€Å"big family†, and it will still be a learning environment. While I am teaching a lesson I would like for my students to be quite when they should be listening and participating when it is time for them to participate. I am there to guide their learning, the students will be allowed to share, correct, and exchange information when the timeRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Classroom Management1669 Words   |  7 PagesPhilosophy of Classroom Management The role that the teacher plays in molding student behavior is the rule keeper, the love giver, and the judge. Every teacher needs 3-4 standard rules that will be followed. For me, the rules students will be expected to follow are: 1. Listen and follow directions 2. Raise your hand before you speak or before you leave your seat 3. Respect your fellow classmates and your teacher These rules will be gone over the first day of school and implemented with a zero-toleranceRead MoreClassroom Management Philosophy 2589 Words   |  11 PagesClassroom Management Plan A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The philosophy that I am developing behind my classroom management plan is one that is based on clear communication with my students.  Ã‚  I believe that it is important to value relationships with students because that is the starting point of creating a classroom climate that is positive and consistent.  Ã‚  It is my goal to cultivate self-directed students so that the behavior management is not taking up lots of valuable class time.  Ã‚  Although school seems competitiveRead MoreClassroom Theory : Classroom Management Philosophy1351 Words   |  6 PagesToni Bentley Classroom Management Classroom Management Philosophy My Classroom Management Philosophy I believe that a well managed classroom provides safety, education and respect and fosters an environment of team work and empathy. In order to support and encourage learning in a classroom environment, students should feel comfortable and safe both physically and emotionally. Behavior, character, independence, attitudes, and academics are all learned in a classroom. They shouldRead MoreClassroom Management Philosophy. Introduction. Classroom1255 Words   |  6 PagesClassroom management philosophy Introduction Classroom management must be put in practice for any education setting to achieve its goal. Classroom management is the process that schools and teachers create and maintain the appropriate behavior of students in a classroom setup. The main aim of implementing the management strategies is to improve students’ academic engagement (Emmer Sabornie, 2015). In the context of Alfie Kohn theory, an ideal classroom is the one that curiosity and cooperationRead MoreClassroom Management Philosophy 2112 Words   |  9 Pagesbasically good and that if let to develop in a nurturing environment, we would grow into self-responsible and noble creatures. I believe that acts such as selfishness are definitely learned behaviors. Therefore, I think as my approach to classroom management, I would adopt the approach of a â€Å"nurturing† supporter. I believe the role of teacher is someone who supports the learning process of students (like that of Developmentalist) where the curriculum would be student-centered. Because each studentRead MorePhilosophy Of Classroom Engagement And Management802 Words   |  4 PagesDuring this assignment I’ll conduct a philosophy of classroom engagement and management in different categories. A facilitator is a person or thing that makes an action or process easy or easier. This role is extremely significant when it applies to a career in teaching based on the evaluation of the educator during the 21st century. â€Å"For those teachers who facilitate It requires a self-assurance, a willingness to share self, to care, to begin a journey, then launch the student on a personal quest

Analysis And Design For My Health Record †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Analysis And Design For My Health Record? Answer: Introducation In the present scenario the health care system is considered as one of the most complex system as the patients have to undergo multiple number of tests and meet with several physicians. The use of information technology management to develop a central information system can potentially enhance safety of the patient, patient satisfaction level and organizational effectiveness that are providing health care services to the patients. The patient record or the details of the patient story is important as this records contains considerable number of information obtained and made amid a particular patient gets treated by several different physicians and health care services (de Lusignan, et al., 2014). The proposed health record information system will help the patient and the physicians to review older observation of the patients health done by other doctors or physicians, to get vital health informations in medical emergency, to justify the medication provided to the patients. In case of the pen paper based, patient record system, it takes a certain number of human resources who will be responsible for maintaining and updating the information related to the patients which also leads to too much time consumption. Cost: One of the major issues that is impacting the expenditure of the health services is the cost to manually maintain the health records despite the fact that the proficiency gave by this sort of records is not accurate and time efficient. The time required to record, recover and modify the patient records can be vital in the event of any medical emergency (Friend, Jennings Levine, 2017). This manual health record keeping system is likewise in charge of repetitive therapeutic tests and reports of the patients which again expends part of time in the entire medicinal services. Enhanced Accessibility: in the present system, the access to the patients records are restricted in the premises of the health care facility that he/she visits often (Abbas Khan 2014). Thus in case any medical emergency of the patient when he/she is out of his city or locality then it would not be possible for the doctors at that location to access the medical history that may be important to save the patients life or to start the treatment avoiding the adverse situations that may occur due to the use of inappropriate medicines (against which the patient may have allergy). Loss of information in the total process: In the present system, the mentally ill person had to tell their story to the each medical expert they meet. In this process, one of the issues recognized in this process was that each time a youngster have to re-tell their 'story' it causes loss important health information as in this long process the youngsters gets calm up and consequently tells minimum detail to the experts who comes at the end of this process. Capabilities in the proposed health information system My Health Record Will provide improved co-ordination between different health service providers: Through this proposed patient information system health data of the patients can be uploaded and recovered from anyplace at any time utilizing internet that will help in providing faster treatment of the patients (Friend, Jennings Levine, 2017). This feature will help in the situation when a patient is effected by any severe illness while they are far from the home city and known specialists, the therapeutic specialist at the location can get to My Health Record to recover the patient previous health information keeping in mind the end goal to give faster and best in class medicinal services to help the patient recover faster from the illness. Improved QoS for the health services: As the proposed information system will include the patients in the whole system of health care service and require their active participation in the process thus it will help in improving the quality and timeliness of the services provided to them by the different health care (de Lusignan, et al., 2014). This system will help in to improve the productivity and efficiency of health care services and decrease the regulatory and work costs related with medicinal services conveyance and financing. Staffing deficiencies is developed due to the execution of same processes repeatedly which will be reduced by the use of My Health Record. Benefits of the proposed health information system (My Health Record) Increased convenience: After the development of the proposed online health record system the patients does not have to worry to remember and repeat their health and medication history such as details of chronic conditions, medicines prescribed to them previously, allergies against specific drugs, dates of recent tests, their results, with different or newer healthcare service providers (Abbas Khan 2014). Privacy of patients data: In case of proposed online health record system (My Health Record) it may collect personal information and other medical information from different government bodies and Medicare that includes name, date of birth, and recent medical records. This data will be accessible by different registered healthcare service providers like health care facilities and hospitals (Friend, Jennings Levine, 2017). This will enable those facilities in providing better services according to the previous medical data when providing healthcare to a specific patient. The individuals or the patients can set access controls/ levels to restrict which healthcare providers can access/ see their personal as well health information. Availability of data: Regardless of the possibility that the patients move or travel, the data can be stored safely on the internet platform, anyplace, whenever. If the patient require then they can restrict the access level for the different individuals in order to save the privacy of the data. Keeping in mind the end goal to securely share and access to the patients data in the health care services, it is basic to have the capacity to authenticate the users, including the facilities and physicians (Abbas Khan 2014). In the My Health Record framework, this is accomplished using computerized central information that will meet the Australian Government embraced Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) standard. Streamlined process: Use of the online patient health record system will help in automating the different health care services provided to the patients. In addition to that, this will also help in streamlining the procedures that will result in reduction in the expenditure and improve the related revenue (de Lusignan, et al., 2014). The revenue will be enhanced through the integrations of the different processes in the health care facilities and avoiding adverse medical situations. Timely and cost effective health care services: The use of the proposed online health record system will help in saving precious time and health care related expenditure (Friend, Jennings Levine, 2017). For instance, the ability of this system to show past test results of the patients can altogether decrease the number of tests requested in a medical emergency, sparing the expenditure, as well as keeping the patient from experiencing excessive medical tests. As described before, data on understanding sensitivities or allergies against different medicines, in mix with alarms and updates, can diminish the number of pharmaceutical related unfavourable and adverse events and enhance the recommending practices of doctors and medical specialists (Abbas Khan 2014). In addition to that, different medical issues for example, abnormal test outcomes for a specific patient, can be treated and manage in more timey basis if the doctor at the health care facility has the data at the time of emergency. References Abbas, A., Khan, S. U. (2014). A review on the state-of-the-art privacy-preserving approaches in the e-health clouds.IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Healthcare Informatics,18(4), 1431-1441. de Lusignan, S., Mold, F., Sheikh, A., Majeed, A., Wyatt, J. C., Quinn, T., ... Blakey, H. (2014). Patients online access to their electronic health records and linked online services: a systematic interpretative review. BMJ open, 4(9), e006021. Friend, T. H., Jennings, S. J., Levine, W. C. (2017). Communication Patterns in the Perioperative Environment During Epic Electronic Health Record System Implementation.Journal of Medical Systems,41(2), 22. Kho, A. N., Cashy, J. P., Jackson, K. L., Pah, A. R., Goel, S., Boehnke, J., ... Malin, B. A. (2015). Design and implementation of a privacy preserving electronic health record linkage tool in Chicago.Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, ocv038 King, J., Patel, V., Jamoom, E. W., Furukawa, M. F. (2014). Clinical benefits of electronic health record use: national findings. Health services management, 49(1pt2), 392-404. Middleton, B., Bloomrosen, M., Dente, M. A., Hashmat, B., Koppel, R., Overhage, J. M., ... Zhang, J. (2013). Enhancing patient safety and quality of care by improving the usability of electronic health record systems: recommendations from AMIA.Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association,20(e1), e2-e8. Rasmussen?Torvik, L. J., Stallings, S. C., Gordon, A. S., Almoguera, B., Basford, M. A., Bielinski, S. J., ... Crosslin, D. R. (2014). Design and Anticipated Outcomes of the eMERGE?PGx Project: A Multicenter Pilot for Preemptive Pharmacogenomics in Electronic Health Record Systems.Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics,96(4), 482-489.

Rsat Task 1 Essay Example

Rsat Task 1 Essay After reading through the different types of leader styles, I sat and analyzed how I deal with managing issues. I concluded that I am a Problem Solver type of leader. This individual uses a systematic approach to combating issues that arise. When a situation rises that needs attention, I figure out exactly what the problem is; lay out scenarios to resolve the problem and working toward a goal that eliminates the problem. I then devise a plan or map for the solution to the problem. I also take input from all that would be affected by the problem and even those affected by the outcome, and weigh that input when deciding a plan to resolve the problem. Strengths and Weaknesses Every leadership style has strengths and weaknesses. Being a problem solver, I can easily understand how spending too much time discussing the problem itself, and not arriving at a solution could be a big weakness. This weakness never allows for the problem to be solved, just analyzed over and over. On the flip side of this, a leader that listens to input from their team members is also strength to this type of leadership. We will write a custom essay sample on Rsat Task 1 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Rsat Task 1 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Rsat Task 1 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This leader then has a wide range of diverse views regarding the problem and possible solutions. The leader is subjecting itself to points that they or other members may not be able to see regarding the problem. This will allow for a more in depth view of the problem and possible ways to solve it that could be more beneficial for the team as a whole. A strength to the problem solving leadership style is that you surround yourself with capable experts on the subject matter. You are not spending time attempting to solve the problem yourself. The overall decision may be yours, but having a team of experts allows you to view different angles and solutions to efficiently get to the root of the problem and put the solution into place. A weakness of surrounding yourself with experts on the subject matter is that you, as a leader, could become or appear to over accommodate those experts. In an attempt to please everybody you could miss the whole point, and not be successful in solving the problem at hand. Over involvement can be a big weakness in this leadership style. Not taking every recommendation of your team members into consideration and weighing the outcomes of the proposed solutions, only to make your own decision in the end can turn out to be a huge mistake if your decision does not have a beneficial outcome or solve the problem. This is where over involvement on your side can hurt you, your team, and the circumstances. Other weaknesses include the amount of time spent in meetings instead of actively working on the solution. The length of time it takes for solutions to finally come about is long because of the amount of input you are receiving. Comparison While my personal leadership style is the Problem Solver, not everybody will have the same style. In fact, however many people you have in the group will probably be the amount of different leadership styles that will also exist within the group. Group H in my Leadership Class group had five members, but each of us brought a different style of leadership. Natalie Morice, for example, stated that her personal leadership style was â€Å"Delegator. † This particular type of leadership style is one that empowers the members of her team to make decisions and carry through with those decisions. While my leadership style entails me to take input from my team members and make the final decision myself, Natalie has her team members responsible for making the decisions while she supervises with progress reports. While her team members have accountability for their work, Natalie loses that accountability in the finale. Empowering team members that cannot handle the responsibility or do not have the experience or confidence to make decisions or solve problems, can cause the team to fail, and ultimately cause the leader to fail. The Problem Solver allows their team to make input, but ultimately makes the final decision; and while ultimately it could be the wrong decision and the team could still fail, it is the decision that the leader is accountable for. The Problem Solver is accountable for the decisions they made, while the Delegator is accountable for decisions that her team member made. While the Delegator has empowered her people and gets progress reports periodically, the Problem Solver is involved with the team during the decision making process, and keeps on top of every facet of the problem solving. There is more support for the team when the leader is the Problem Solving style, rather than the Delegator style. Another team member, Monette Mudie, stated that her leadership style was the â€Å"Developer†. The developer style is the middle of the Problem Solver style and the Delegator style. This style empowers the team members to make decisions of their own, but is more hands on with them while they are arriving at those decisions. This leader assists and mentors the team members if they are struggling with the solution process, but in the end, it is the team member that makes the final decision. The Developer is much like the Problem Solver in that both leaders assists, encourages, and mentors their team members with the decision making process. They are different in that the Problem Solver ultimately makes the final decision, while the Developer’s team makes their own decision with the help of their leader. Both styles (Developer and Problem Solver) can be construed as micro-managing on the leader’s part. Team members who are confident and prefer to work alone may find the constant interaction from the leader distracting or annoying. Team members under the Developer may feel more confident and take more pride in the work that they ultimately had the final say in, while team members under the Problem Solver may feel as though the leader didn’t appreciate their input or feel that they are not getting credit for their work. Understanding Understanding that there are many types of leadership styles is a start to improving your method of leadership style. When working with a group, knowing the leadership style of those you are leading can be helpful for several reasons. . Knowing the leadership style will give you insight to how the person works, whether alone or in a group; you will know how they will likely fit into the culture because of their style. 2. The leadership style of your members will give you insight as to how to effectively communicate to different members. Not all team members will react the same way to one type of communication. If you have a peek at how they, themselves lead, then you will kno w how to lead them effectively. 3. Knowing the leadership style of your team members will let you know who can work independently or as a team better, therefore you will know who will require more or less support and you can be proactive, instead of reactive to this. Having this information or foresight into the style of your team members will allow you to form a team that you can lead effectively because you will know the diversity of their styles before the project gets started. This will allow you to foresee any possible issues and possibly allow changes within the team or your method of communicating or leading to be proactive. Knowing your own leadership style is important also in being an effective leader. You should always know what your strengths and weaknesses are, the characteristics of your style and how different leadership styles may react to this. This is beneficial if somebody is having a problem with your leadership style, you can pinpoint what that problem is before the issue is blown out of proportion. The many leadership styles of your team can motivate you to make changes in your leadership style so that the team works to its maximum capacity. This will also allow you to motivate, inspire and reward the team members in ways that they will appreciate more. Knowing the different styles of your team will help you to get the team members to engage more within the team project. Knowing how to motivate or inspire people gets people to put more toward the project and allows for great commitment, an effective method of solving problems, and higher productivity within the team. Lastly, a leader cannot be a leader without communicating. Different styles require different methods of communication. If you know the styles of your team members, you will have the benefit of knowing the most beneficial way of communicating with and to that team member. Differences Leading a team with so many different members and different leadership styles can be a difficult task. There are many problems that a leader can experience due to the differences. One big problem could be differences in how people approach work situations. Some people are leaders and others are not. You may find that some team members will step right up to the plate, while others will await for tasks to be assigned to them. Not knowing that people are different like this could cause some friction within the team. The assertive â€Å"leaders† may think that the passive members are lazy, not enthusiastic, or just not team players. Passive members may assume that the assertive members are pushy, trying to monopolize the work, or just not team players. A way to combat the difference in assertive and passive (leadership style) team members would be to know your team members styles ahead of time, and assign tasks according to the strong attributes of their particular style. Also, salting your team of a mix of members would work better than having a whole team of assertive or a whole team of passive members. Another problem could occur if you have members on your team with the same leadership styles as yourself. If you have members on your team that are Delegators, the same as you, there could be some other team members that feel that all the work is being pushed off onto them as yourself and the team members with the same Delegating style are delegating to team members that are not Delegators. Again, the way to combat this problem would be to assign tasks to all team members, giving them a particular part of the project to work on that belongs to them. The Developer type of leadership style allows team members to be empowered to make decisions on their own. If you are the developer and have team members on your team that are indecisive or not confident or knowledgeable enough to make decisions on their own; then you will have team members that cannot reach the goals needed for the project. The only way to combat this problem is to ensure that your team members are knowledgeable and confident with the information needed to participate in this project. Let them know that you are available for assistance or mentoring if they find they are at a point where they cannot or do not feel comfortable making decisions on the project. Also, let the team know that they can also consult with other team members for input. In any team situation, there must be open communication for all avenues in order for the team to work as an actual team. Without communication, it is lmost guaranteed that the project team will fail. Make sure the avenues of communication are open and being utilized to their full extent. Synergies With four different styles of Leadership Styles, it is highly likely that you will have an assortment of different leadership styles in your group. There can be both advantages and disadvantages but you can definitely use the different leadership styles to your advantage a nd create a strong team. You will need to evaluate or have the knowledge ahead of time as to what leadership styles the different members of your team have. Copyright  © 2012 by Lisamarie Pettit TO: Maryse Vriotte, Chief Executive Officer FROM: Lisamarie Pettit, Elementary Division Manager RE: Ralph Hall Constructive Discharge Suit In regards to the Constructive Discharge suit brought against Bockers Toy Company, stating that Ralph Hall (Employee) has filed a claim against Bockers Toy Company under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, constructive discharge, after a work schedule policy change took effect requiring employees to work shifts of 4/12 hour days, subsequently having 4 days off and then repeating. Mr Hall states that this change in shifts requires him to work on a religious holy day, discriminating against his religious beliefs, therefore, causing constructive discharge. Constructive Discharge is a legal concept conceived by the National Labor Relations Board and is defined legally as: â€Å"Evidence of objectively difficult or unpleasant working conditions to the extent that a reasonable employee would feel compelled to resign, if the employer has been given at least fifteen days notice by the employee that the employee intends to resign because of these conditions, and the employer fails to respond to employees concerns. (www. uslegal. com) Two specific intent tests must be looked at when deciding if Constructive Discharge has taken place: * Would a reasonable person find conditions to be unbearable? * Were conditions created to force person to resign? The proof of burden falls on the employee to prove that the employer intended these consequences through the two scenarios above. Under the specific intent tests, it is determined that a reasonable person would not find conditions at Bocker’s Toy Company to be unbearable; and also that the change in shift was not created to force Ralph Hall to resign. Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it is also stated that if an employee feels they are under the terms of a Constructive Discharge, then steps should be taken to allow the employer to remedy the situation. These steps are as follows: * Notify employer, in writing, that a working condition exists that the employee believes is objectively so difficult or unpleasant that the employee feels compelled or intends to resign. * Allow employer fifteen calendar days to respond in writing to the written communication. * Read and consider employer’s response. If employee is uncomfortable working in that fifteen calendar day waiting period, they have the option to take a leave for the duration. It is up to the employer is this is a paid or unpaid leave. In regards to Ralph Hall, Mr. Hall did not notify Bocker’s Toy Company or any management working at Bocker’s Toy Company that the working condition existed, or that he was intending to resign from his position. No written notice if needed if evidence of outrageous conduct by the employer or manager, including sexual assault, threats of violence, or pattern of discriminatory harassment took place and if this pattern caused the abrupt resignation. We feel this did not happen and not giving us a fifteen day notice did not give Bocker’s Toy Company the opportunity to remedy the situation before suit was filed. TITLE VII OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS ACT Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, Section 2000e-2 states: * It shall be unlawful employment practice for an employer to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It shall be unlawful employment practice for an employer to limit, segregate, or classify employees or applicants of employment in any which way would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex or national origin. (www. eeoc. gov) Based on the above section s of Title VII, we cannot discriminate against Mr. Hall in respect to his work conditions, terms, or privileges of employment (work shifts) due to his religion. The second bullet point makes clear that we cannot limit employment opportunities because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex or national origin. RECOMMENDATION My recommendation to avoid court and legal proceedings and to save costs regarding both is to offer Mr. Hall to return to his position. The implications surrounding his being unable to work on his holy day of Saturday due to his religious beliefs can easily be remedied by the following, without undue hardship to Bocker’s Toy Company. Mr. Hall will work the same scheduled 4/12 hour shifts as other workers. * On the four days that one of Mr. Hall’s scheduled days falls on a Saturday, Mr. Hall will not be required to report to work on Saturday, but on those weeks, will add a day at the end of his 4/12 hour shifts due to the skipped Saturday. (see table A) * It is the responsibility of Mr. Hall to inform his manager when a Saturday falls within his 4/12 hour shift so that Manager is able to find r eplacement staffing if needed. Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall HOLY Hall Hall HOLY Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Hall Yellow indicates Holy Religious Day Blue indicates day added to make up Mr. Hall’s need for Saturdays off will leave the shift short one guy, and then on days that he is making up his 4th day will leave shifts extra one guy. It is up to the manager to look at the workforce need on those days to decide if he would like to give the option to other employees on Mr. Hall’s make up day to exchange that day for Saturday when Mr. Hall is off. The probability is that being short on Saturdays, the extra person on Mr. Hall’s make up day will make up for it and it will even out in the end. EEOC vs. Cinram Wireless, L. L. C revealed a case similar to ours where an employee asked for a different shift due to her Holy Sabbath Day from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday. Cinram Wireless at first agreed to the shift change; but then refused stating that if they made allowances for this employee, they would have to make allowances for all employees. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 requires employers to make reasonable accommodations as long as it does not cause undue hardships. The EEOC stated that Cinram made no reasonable effort to accommodate the employee’s religious beliefs, and did not successfully demonstrate that doing so would provide undue hardship. In the case of EEOC vs. Generation Properties dba Staybridge Suites, Generation Properties was made to pay a $27,500 settlement to an employee for failing to accommodate her Sabbath observance, and subsequently discharging her. The case of EEOC vs. White Hall Nursing and Rehabilitation Center; White Hall Nursing was made to pay a settlement of $24,000 to an employee for accommodating the employee for one year, and then refusing any further accommodation for her Seventh Day Adventist Sabbath observance, and subsequently was terminated. The above case examples show serious infractions against Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964’s act to not discriminate against employees for their religious beliefs. I believe that accommodating employees for their religious Sabbath would not cause undue hardship and it is in our best interest to offer Mr. Hall to return with the above specified accommodations recommended to him.

Using the Spanish Verb Saber

Using the Spanish Verb Saber Saber is a common verb whose basic meaning is to have knowledge or to have knowledge of. Although it is often translated as to know, it should not be confused with conocer, which also is often translated as to know. The basic meaning of saber can be seen most clearly when it is followed by a noun or a phrase functioning as a noun:  ¿Sabe alguien los horarios de los buses desde el aeropuerto? Does anyone know the times of the buses from the airport?Nuestra presidente no sabe inglà ©s. Our president doesnt know English.No se sabe mucho de su muerte. Not much is known about his death.Sà © bien la verdad. I know the truth well.Nunca sabemos el futuro. We never know the future. When followed by an infinitive, saber often means to know how: El que no sabe escuchar no sabe entender. The one who doesnt know how to listen doesnt know how to understand.No saben escribir en cursiva. They dont know how to write in cursive.El problema era que los dos no sabà ­amos nadar. The problem was that the two of us didnt know how to swim. Saber can mean to find out. This is especially true when it is used in the preterite tense: Supe que todos tenemos cosas en comà ºn. I found out that all of us have things in common.Nunca supieron que estaban equivocados. They never found out that they were mistaken. In context, saber can be used to say to have news about someone or something: No sà © nada de mi madre. I dont have any news about my mother. The phrase saber a can be used to indicate what something tastes like: Yo no he comido iguana, pero se dice que sabe a pollo. I havent eaten iguana, but they say it tastes like chicken. Remember that saber is conjugated irregularly.

Incorporate These 15 Practices into Your Life to Find Success

Incorporate These 15 Practices into Your Life to Find Success We all have a tendency to stay close within our comfort zones. But what if the biggest growth potential and rewards are just beyond that zone? Or even way beyond it? Here are 15 ways to question your idea of what is normal, and how to expand both that concept and your comfort zone, and make a major difference in the course of your life.1. Question everythingTake nothing for granted. Be like the toddler always asking why. Keep searching for answers and examine norms from every angle. You never know what you might find.2. Be painfully honestBeing the most honest you have ever been is incredibly uncomfortable. It feels alien to tell 100% of the truth. If you’re burning to say something (good or bad) to someone in your life, you’ll never know the value that could be reached by saying it until you try. Start with a letter if the idea of a conversation freaks you out.3. MeditateEspecially when you’re busy, carving out time to sit and do nothing except breathing can mak e you feel insane. But the benefits far outweigh the perceived (negligible) costs. Sometimes, by stopping, you’ll greatly enhance your ability to keep going.4. Learn to be an early riserIt might sound awful, or you might not be a â€Å"morning person,† but imagine what you could get done if you got up extremely early, say 5am, when everyone else is asleep and you have the world to yourself. Begin your day in productive silence.5. Create thingsEveryone fancies themselves a creative person, but it’s so easy to choose Netflix and wine instead of a creative project when we come home from a long day. Persist and find yourself a creative outlet, then nurture it with diligence!6. Save your moneyStart keeping track of every penny you spend. Do this for a few months. Try paying for everything in cash, which will really drive home how much you’re spending. Once you cut the excess, you’ll be shocked at what you can save.7.  Give back to those in needVolunte ering can make you feel less self-centered, less hopeless, and like you’re part of something bigger. Don’t underestimate the value of community outreach.8. Maintain your fitnessKeep track of what you eat and what exercise you do. It may seem annoying and time-consuming, but it’s a great way to see the good vs. harm you’re doing to your body so you can make changes accordingly.9. Eat wellNutritious food helps you perform better. Limit your diet to food that has actual nutrition: lots of organic vegetables, lean proteins, healthy fats, etc. It’s better to be a weirdo about your food and to outshine the competition than to blend in at parties and be sluggish or unhealthy all your life.10.  Work on your speaking skillsPublic speaking is a daunting thing, but learning to do it adds an invaluable skill to your toolbox. Everyone is scared of it at first. Take small opportunities to cut your teeth and when you really need to stand up in front of a crowd, you’ll be ready.11. Talk to people who interest youIntrigued by someone? Strike up a conversation. What do you have to lose? Worst case scenario: rejection. Best case: a new friend! And rejection is a normal part of life, so there is nothing for you to fear.12. Put away your phoneTake a digital detox every now and then, let your mind wander and mull over projects and problems. Also, put it away in social settings. Constantly checking or looking things up is just plain rude.13. Focus your efforts on one thing at a timeDon’t try all the things at once. Pick one at a time and commit to mastering that thing. Once you’re there, feel free to pick another. The road to mastery is accomplished one task at a time. Intention and attention are important.14. Set scary goalsStretch your limits by setting goals you’re not sure you can reach. Pick something harder and scarier and more uncomfortable than you’ve ever done and give yourself a year to do it. This mig ht be as simple as attempting to run 7 miles when you’ve hardly ever run 1. But the experience of channeling your physical and mental reserves to get it done is almost always worth it.15. Get help if you need itTherapy might be the number one most uncomfortable thing to do. It’s an exhausting chore to examine your own biases, defenses, motivations, and those of the people in your life. But it always gets you closer to the truth. And can lead to all sorts of breakthroughs in the short and long term.

Organizational Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organizational Ethics - Essay Example Businesses that operate ethically are assumed to have a lot of gains but it is not as simple as it sounds especially in an ever increasingly competitive environment. The leader has to make sure all the stockholder’s interests are taken care of and at the same time ensure all laws are adhered to and also act according to moral principles. The problem is; does the leader do what is right according to his or her opinion or what is right according to the moral standards of society? Sometimes these two views conflict and the leader have to make this important decision. This becomes more complex as the company becomes global due to diversity of cultures. Morality according to Fieser and Moseley (2012) guides what is permitted and what is not or what is â€Å"right† and what is â€Å"wrong†. However, it all depends on what moral theory one is applying. Understanding business ethics is important and as such this paper will focus on how various companies solve their ethic al dilemmas. This will be accomplished by using an example of a profit organization (Google) and a non-profit organization (United Service Organizations). First, the paper will give the profiles of both companies and the ethical issues they faced or are currently facing. Secondly, personal reflections on the ethical actions taken by the companies will be evaluated. This will be followed by a critique of these actions taken based on philosophical theories. Lastly, a brief summary of the main issues will be given. Company Profile: Google Google Inc is a global leader in the technology sector specializing in the search engine industry. It was founded and incorporated in 1998 by Larry Page and his co-founder Sergy Brin. It is a profit making organization whose mission is â€Å"to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful† (Google.com, 2013). It operates more than 70 offices situated in more than 60 countries and an employee base of more than 30,000 employees worldwide. Its headquarters are situated in Mountain View, California with various branches in the US, Asia Pacific, Africa, Europe, Latin America, United Arab Emirates, and Canada. It is a global company that offers services to both people and businesses. It is involved in offering search services, advertising, and cloud computing for businesses by offering products such as AdWords, AdSense, Google maps, blog searches, Gmail, scholarly papers, books, mobile content, chrome and translation. It started as a small company in a garage but through the years it has developed to become a dominant player in the search engine industry. This is through its aggressive acquisition strategy and new product developments (Google.com, 2013). The company derives its revenue mainly from advertising, websites, and hardware products. All these revenues are acquired through hard work as entailed in the company’s value statement â€Å"don’t be evil† (Google.co m). It has been experiencing a revenue and profit growth over the years as shown in the table 1 below. USD 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total Revenue 23650.56 29321.00 37905.00 50175.00 Gross profit 14806.45 18904.00 24717.00 29670.00 Table 1: Annual Data extracted from Google financial Reports. Most of this revenue comes from advertising and it is far above its competitors in the same industry such as Microsoft, eBay, Face Book, and Apple. Its sales growth of 15.48% year on year is above competitor’s average revenue growth of 6.45% according to CSIMarket (2013). The revenue growth of the various companies year on year is: Google 15.48%; Apple Inc 0.86%; eBay 14.1 %; Microsoft 10.17% and Yahoo Inc -5.22%. From these statistics, it is evident that

Piece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Piece - Essay Example Although there are other minor scale symphonies attributed to Mozart’s name but there are doubts as to authenticity. However, Symphony Number Forty and Symphony Number Twenty Five are minor scale symphonies both authentically attributed to Mozart (Zaslaw). This paper will explore Mozart’s biography, his Symphony Number Forty in terms of its historical context and its description in order to bring out the nuances in this great musical piece. Mozart’s Life and Times It would not be unjustified to term Mozart as one of the chief canons of Western classical music. Mozart hailed from a period when Europe was teeming with musical activity. Mozart was aided in his musical endeavours at an early age by his family background. Wolfgang Mozart’s father, Leopold Mozart was a practising musician and was quick to realise his son’s talents early on. Mozart was encouraged to take up music at a very early age and was able to compose as early as five years old. The e arliest demonstrations by Mozart were based on the violin and the piano and this left quite a strong impression on the maturing Mozart later. The early works of Mozart tend to revolve around the violin and the piano in large part especially his concertos. ... Mozart moved into the Austrian capital and was soon on his way to fame although Mozart’s financial troubles were far from over. The prolific character and the quality of Mozart’s work were able to project him into the limelight in Vienna and around. However, forbidding circumstances such as the Austro Turk war from the same era proved to be a drain on the fiscal resources of Mozart’s patrons. Consequently, Mozart found himself in fiscal trouble for some time. Eventually, Mozart’s circumstances began to recover but the great composer was soon claimed by a mysterious illness. Wolfgang Mozart died in 1791 at age thirty five. Mozart’s untimely death has been the subject of much speculation over the years and most people consider his early death a setback to Western classical music (Robbins). History of Symphony Number Forty The origin of Symphony Number Forty has been traced to Mozart with authentication. The symphony was noted down by Mozart in his per sonal notebook on July the 25th, 1788. It must be noted that Symphony Number Forty hails from one of the most prolific periods in Mozart’s life. The period in which this symphony was created consisted of only a few weeks but works from this period by Mozart are hailed as masterpieces in their own right (Deutsch). Symphony Number Forty has come under debate for Mozart’s personal viewership. It has been argued that Mozart was never able to hear his Symphony Number Forty performed during his lifetime. The time between the composition of Symphony Number Forty and Mozart’s death is brief so it is argued that Mozart died before any large performances of Symphony Number Forty. However, there are other commentators who reason that Mozart was party to Symphony

Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

Huckleberry Finn Essay In the protagonist Huckleberry Finn as he is depicted by Mark Twain, Emerson’s idea of the American scholar is epitomized. The following essay will present the points of Mark Twain as an American scholar through the character Huckleberry Finn; it is through Huckleberry Finn that Emerson’s ideas of nature, books and action become realized and this essay will bring to the forefront of its argument these facts among many other ideas of Emerson’s American scholar are epitomized in Twain’s character Huck. Huckleberry Finn is a character whose main purpose seems almost like a young tale of the Iliad in which fate seems to simply happen to Huck Finn. The events leading up to his stay with the widow Douglas he accounts are no fault of his own, as the metaphor of the story is found with the great Mississippi River so does Huck Finn’s life simply flow along until he makes a conscious choice. This choice comes into being when Huck decides that ‘sivilised’ life is not for him. In the rejection of civilized life Twain is brining in elements of Emerson’s ideals: Huck Finn is a very simplistic character and his thwarting of Widow Douglas best attempts of making him presentable to society become the correlation of Emerson’s American scholar. The American scholar according to Emerson is best found in nature since it is with nature that man learns how the world works; in the trees, and in the roots. This classification allows a man to simplify his life; life is easier with just nature and without civilization. Thus, it may be surmised that Huck’s doffing off of nature is Twain’s own sentiment on the subject of culture and the evilness of society. In Huckleberry Finn’s disappearance from civilized life, after his father kidnaps him and Huck fakes his own death, the voice of Emerson is best found with Jim the slave. Jim gives advice to Huckleberry Finn about the disappointments found in the world and how a man may be able to handle himself by making conscious choices. In the litany of Emerson, this concept is also found by way of Emerson stating that a scholar must gather for himself the appropriate information from different books in order to find an organized opinion about a subject and to take a side of each books’ opinion in order to find himself. Jim states similarly to Finn that he should experience what life has to offer and decide for himself the difference between right and wrong, morality and immoral nature. Thus, the point of going down the Mississippi is to gain as much knowledge and experience as possible in order to later filter opinion from fact, one’s own thoughts from society’s mores. It is in the creation of man’s own thoughts, of Finn deciding throughout the journey that no man should be a slave that Huckleberry Finn becomes a man, becomes an American scholar since he is finally thinking for himself. He rejects Widow Douglas, his father, society in whole and travels with Jim collecting his own thoughts and deciding what is wrong and what is right in the nature of man. In a subtler note, Emerson states that the American scholar must take action and in this capacity Mark Twain does not falter with his protagonist Huckleberry Finn. Huck’s action consists in the part of the story where the Dauphin capture Jim and subsequently sells him in order to receive the reward. Huck is completely outraged by this betrayal and in the course of the story this signifies the first time that he acts upon his own judgment and he rejects the advice of his conscience which tells him that by helping Jim escape to freedom he is in a way stealing Miss Watson’s property. Huck tells himself, All right, then, Ill go to hell! (Twain), Huck resolves to free Jim. Emerson’s concept of the American scholar persists with this idea of action; Emerson states that the scholar must fill every moment of every day with action. The scholar should accordingly work different jobs in order to become fluent in a myriad of vocations. The scholar must also be a poylglot in order to express himself with different thoughts. In the language of the text Huck Finn speaks a very succinct colloquial language as well as proper grammar at times. Thus, he is fulfilling Emerson’s concepts. Finn’s epiphany while traveling and having conversations with Jim is such that he discovers man is his own master; in discovering that Jim has to hide in order to be free and comparing that with Finn’s own hiding in order not be kidnapped he relates himself to Jim. The discovery upon the river is as Emerson highlights, â€Å"And, finally, is not the true scholar the only true master? But the old oracle said, `All things have two handles: beware of the wrong one. In life, too often, the scholar errs with mankind and forfeits his privilege. Let us see him in his school, and consider him in reference to the main influences he receives† (Emerson). Thus, Finn epitomizes Emerson’s view of the American scholar through not only his thoughts but also his behaviors and his actions.

Brennaghs Hamlet Essay -- essays research papers

Often when a movie is adapted from a play, there are several aspects which are adjusted or completely lost. This often depends on the directors point of view as well as the casting director. In Kenneth Branagh’s movie “Hamlet'; only a small number of aspects were lost from the movement of the play to the movie. The movie was ‘word for word’ of the play with the exception of a few moved silique. Therefore, the plot or order did not change. The scene where Hamlet meets his father, 1.5, was very well done; conjuring great emotions of fear and suspense. In addition, the final scene was adequately performed evoking anxiety and thrill for the viewer. The ghost of Hamlet was very disappointing at first but later developed into and excellent portrayal. The characters who played Marcellus, the first Grave digger and Oris, Jack Lemmon, Billy Crystal, and Robin Williams respectively, were fairly poor selections by the casting director. They lacked a certain Shakespearian character as famous comedians. It could not be forgotten making the choices dispiriting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  “You tremble and look pale'; (1.1.53). The first viewing of the ghost causes the guards great fear. They are unsure if what they have seen is “something more than just fantasy'; (1.1.54). It appears to be the body of the late King Hamlet but perhaps it could be their boggled minds. When the ghost enter a second time, they confirm that it was in fact the ghost of Hamlet. This terrifies and mystifies Bernard, Heratio, and Marcellus. The reader feels all of the emotions along with these characters, as it is expressed through the dialogue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Act 1 Scene 4 and 5, when Hamlet meets and speaks with the ghost of his father, the fear increases. You begin reading faster and feel like you are running after the spirit with Hamlet. The actual conversation between the two is very fast and flows very nicely. Once agin making the scene more intense. Throughout the scene the dramatic effects are heighten by the ghost’s long lamented speeches to his son. The entire scene is one of climactic drama.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the movie, the ghost first appears to be a statue. He brings about no feelings of horror in the viewer. This sets the viewer up for grave disappointment as in the play it is s... ...p;  Ã‚  Perhaps Branagh used these actors for their names to help pull in the ratings. If this is the case, the ratings would have been high without them. Perhaps, he used them to get the image of them as “uneducated stars'; out of peoples’ minds. Or perhaps they used him for the dame reason. Either way, their parts do not fit the roles they played. Regardless the movie was excellent and it was immensely enjoyed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The movie kept you at the edge of your seat from the ‘ghost scene’ on. Although it was four hours, it seemed to go by much faster. It is always interesting to see a director’s interpretation or portrayal of the play. Kenneth Branagh did an excellent job. “2 thumbs up!';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As an amazing play is moved to a movie, it is very sad to see characters or scenes lost. In Branagh’s “Hamlet'; very little is lost in his adaptation. This is very pleasing as the play is sensational The only problem faced is that of the comedic actors. This did not effect the outcome of the movie and many are looking forward to more of Branagh’s work.

All About Eve Essay

â€Å"..and, in the last analysis, nothing is any good unless you can look up just before dinner or turn around in bed – and there he is. Without that, you’re not a woman† Is this the message of the film? Made in 1950, the film ‘All About Eve’ screen written and directed by Joseph Mankiewicz, was deliberately engineered to entice women back into their homes after WWII had forced many to assume working roles in the outside world. The film focuses on publicizing the importance of the image of a nuclear family and traditional gender roles and how finding love is endorsed as the ‘proper’ course for women. This is evident through the roles and character development of the three main women in the film; Karen Richards, Margo Channing and Eve Harrington. Through these characters, the film explores the fulfillment of an archetypal 1950s American housewife and the hollowness of actresses’ career success compared to marriage. Furthermore, the film depicts self-supporting women as a threat to conservative values as they inhabited masculine traits. In the film, Mankiewicz emphasizes the security, gratification and permanence in housewives post Cold War. This is evident through the role of Karen Richards, ‘the wife of†¦ playwright’ Lloyd Richards. Lloyd and Karen personifies the ideal marriage where Lloyd is the bread winner, and Karen operates as a traditional, ‘happy little housewife’. Mankiewicz repeatedly frames Karen with characteristics of pureness and happiness through the use of bright camera lighting in mid-close up shots, portraying her as luminescent and angelic. In addition to this, Karen is often shot in light coloured costumes in contrasts to Eve and Margo, who are continuously framed in dark colours throughout the film, suggesting her innocence. Both of these techniques highlight her fulfillment from marriage compared to Eve and Margo who are independent and unma rried. Karen’s character is used as a reflection of 1950s America stereotypical housewife who is completely defined and loyal to her husband. This is evident during the film hinting Lloyd’s indiscretions, Karen remains loyal to him, and even blames herself for his unfaithful behavior, where she wonders in a voiceover about ‘that helplessness you feel when you have no talent outside of loving your husband.’ Here, love is represented as a ‘talent’ and the generic mode of the line indicates a duty of wives to their husband. Ultimately, Karen is a reflection of the traditional housewife in 1950s America and is perceived as the most stable and mature female character as marriage has provided her  with financial and emotional security, social mobility and protection. Throughout the film, career accomplishments and fame is presented as fleeting and temporary, whilst marriage is emphasized as the utmost success for a woman. Mankiewicz establishes that femal es who rise to the top of their profession are only to be faced with the glass ceiling of the patriarchal status quo. This is apparent in the character Margo Channing, a ‘great star’ whose days as Broadways reigning star are numbered as she is at the peak of her career, at the age of 40. Although she is ‘talented, famous [and] wealthy’ Margo is insecure that when she retires from the theatre she’ll be alone, without a career and without a man to love her. Marriage is offered as a solution for Margo, and only once she makes the decision that allows her to ‘get back to being a woman’, do we see a gradual shift from Margo being an actress to being a ‘proper’ married women. The gratification from marriage is highlighted through the use of camera lighting in the cub room scene after Bill and Margo announces that they’re getting married. A close up shot of Margo’s smiling face and relaxed manner with radiant lighting similar to Karen’s indicates true happiness as she has achieved the role of housewife. Through portraying her p ositively, the film asserts this will provide her with the happiness and ‘sentiment’ she had been actively rejecting. In short, the use of Margo’s growing happiness as she transitions from professional career for marriage, the film positions the audience to view domesticity as providing ultimate fulfillment for women. In an era where women were expected to conform to social norms, those who failed to take on the role of a nurturing mother with a financially secured husband were labeled as a threat to society. Mankiewicz uses the characters Margo and Eve to explore how independent and successful careered women possess masculine traits because they do not have a man. Prior to Margo’s marriage with Bill, the film portrays her with a masculine demeanor through her deep voice and posture. In the scene of Margo’s voiceover, the audience can see that Margo is the head chief of the house, with Birdie and Eve jostling for her favour. This highlights Margo’s masculinity as during this era, the males were the dominant figure in the house, and the wives role was to please their husband. Therefore, Margo is not presented as an ideal woman as she takes on the male role in her own home. Only once Margo marries Bill, we see her conform to society’s expectations of married woman, as she leaves  paid employment upon marriage to become a domestic housewife. Mankiewicz also depicts Eve, an independent and constructed success as manipulative, conniving and calculating mastermind driven by personal ambition, all of which were dominant values in a masculine society at this time. Furthermore, women without a man to love were displayed with masculine characteristics, and thus not truly a woman because they did not abide by reactionary American values. Ultimately, the film ‘All about Eve’ is marked by a polarizing gender ideology, used to promote marriage as a romantic ideal and women. Through the roles of Karen, Margo and Eve, the film highlights that married women find happiness from serving their husband, the inevitable emotional emptiness that women will experience e if they reject their domestic roles in their pursuit of a career, and how independent women show traits that aren’t consistent as a true 1950s women. Thus the film suggests that domesticity is what provides women with ultimate satisfaction.

Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence

Eyewitness Testimony as a source of reliable evidence In relation to cognitive psychology, is eyewitness testimony reliable in today’s judicial system? Word Count: 3944 ABSTRACT Is eyewitness testimony a reliable source of evidence in today’s judicial system? Many jurors tend to pay close attention to eyewitness testimony assuming that what they hear is exactly as it happened. They ignore the psychology behind remembering an event. Our brain is a complex structure and it is difficult to absorb every stimulus in our surrounding. We pay great attention to some aspects of a situation while completely ignoring others. It is advisable for expert psychologists to be present during a court case that involves eyewitness testimony, as they are more aware of its flaws. We store information in schemas and when we gain new knowledge it is altered in order to fit these schemas. Leading psychologists such as Elizabeth Loftus, Neil Bartlett and Yullie & Cutshall have carried out research in order to demonstrate how our memory can be altered by psychological factors such as leading questions, reconstructive memory and weapon focus. This research paper contains a vast number of experiments and studies done in order to illustrate the unreliability of our memory and whether courts should rely on eyewitness testimony as a prime source. Age and gender also serve as factors that influence eyewitness testimony. Through research and analysis, it is concluded in this paper that eyewitness testimony should not be given superiority over other actual evidence presented, as our memory is the least reliable source. It is worthwhile to carry out further investigation about the case if eyewitness testimony is the only evidence available, as false testimonies could lead to an innocent individual being charged guilty. Word Count: 260 CONTENTS Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 2 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 4 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 7 Misleading Questions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 7 Anxiety and Stress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 9 Weapon Focus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 11 Reconstructive Memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 11 Confident Testimony†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 14 Age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 15 Gender†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 16 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 17 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 19 INTRODUCTION The reliability of eyewitness testimony has often been questioned in cases of crime and violence but yet the judicial syste m seems to ignore its flaws. Numerous psychologists have carried out experiments and studies regarding this issue. Eyewitness testimony has a large psychological background that judges, lawyers and the jury seem to ignore. Our ability to remember certain situations and events may be distorted according to the time and place that the event occurred or the time and place that the eyewitness testimony is given. Cognitive psychologists have carried out profound research about this phenomenon and have found that eyewitness testimony can be related to human schemas, reconstructive memory and our ability to remember. The knowledge we have gained from the world is stored in our brain as an organized package of information called a schema. The ‘schema theory’ states that the knowledge we have already gained through our life has a major influence on what we remember. According to Cohen (1986) as cited in Gross (64), the human mind uses past experiences in order to deal with new experiences. Our behavior is guided by the set of schemas that we have in our brain. The new experiences that we face are not just ‘replicated’ into our memory but instead are reconstructed in order to fit our schemas. The reconstruction of memory is an active process and happens throughout our life (Gross, 64). Therefore, how we perceive an event is strongly influenced by our past experiences. Human memory is seen as an unreliable source when we apply the idea of reconstructive and interpretative nature of memory to eyewitness testimony. The probability of people being wrongly accused increases as the importance of eyewitness testimony in the cases of accidents and crimes increases, and therefore the guilty do not come to justice (Gross, 64). Many experiments conclude that law professionals and judges rely and place their decisions on eyewitness testimony, however, researchers investigated on situations whereby the innocent had been accused. As cited in Miller’s article (2006), Gary Wells (1998) researched on forty such cases and with the help of DNA testing it was found that all forty convicted suspects were actually innocent. The witnesses wrongfully accused the suspects in thirty-six of these cases. The human brain has a limited capacity to deal with the incoming information but yet every moment we encounter a large variety of stimuli like sights, sounds and smells. However, as mentioned above if we encounter stimuli which conflict with our schemas, we reconstruct our memory in order to fit our chemas. The human brain therefore focuses on some aspects of the situation while ignoring the others in order to cope with the sensory barrage. This process of choosing stimuli is called selective attention. Eyewitnesses tend to collect information that relates to their interests and may ignore other vital aspects of the event (Glassman, 5). It is difficult for witnesses to reconsider their initial understanding once the y have stated facts in a specific way or have already indentified an individual as the performer, due to the reconstruction of their memory (e. . once an eyewitness recognizes an individual in a line-up it is likely for them to recognize the same individual in later line-ups even though that individual may not be the performer). Jury’s place great reliance on eyewitness testimony and ignore the dangers of false memories (Engelhardt, n. d). In view of these findings, this work will investigate the â€Å"extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable in today’s judicial system† focusing on major factors that influence our memory and ability to remember. Cognitive psychology plays a major role in this investigation as it involves the idea of memory and schemas. DISCUSSION â€Å"An account given by people of an event they have witnessed† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) is usually referred to as an eyewitness testimony. One may be asked to recall the event they witnessed and describe what happened. Jury’s tend to find eyewitness testimony to be a reliable source of information and pay close attention to it, but the witness may have had a hard time remembering the event and the testimony could be inaccurate. Research done by a number of psychologists regarding eyewitness testimony found that it could be affected by many psychological factors such as leading questions, anxiety and stress, weapons and reconstructive memory (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Factors such as age and gender could also affect the way in which individuals remember events. Influence of psychological factors on eyewitness testimony Misleading questions American psychologist, Elizabeth Loftus, represented the application of Cognitive psychology to the real world. Her experiments demonstrated how misleading information could cause eyewitnesses to reconstruct their memories (Gross, 64). A leading question is a question that contains information previously unknown to the witness. In one of her studies with Palmer (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) as cited in the article Memory (Psychology), the participants watched a videotape that showed an automobile accident consisting of two cars. After watching the videotape the participants were presented with a questionnaire whereby the question was altered for groups of participants. One question asked, â€Å"About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? † For other participants the verb ‘hit’ was replaced by ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’, or ‘contacted’. Even though all participants viewed the same videotape, their speed estimates differed considerably depending on how the question was asked. When the verb ‘contacted’ was used, the average speed estimate was 32 mph, when the verb was ‘hit’ it was 34 mph, 38mph when it was ‘bumped’, 39 mph when it was ‘collided’, and 41 mph when it was smash. Loftus carried out a follow up study a week later whereby she asked the participants whether there was any broken glass in the videotape. Participants that were presented with the verb ‘smashed’ were twice as likely to ‘remember’ any broken glass than the participants that were presented with the verb ‘hit’. The information that came in much later after the original event had occurred incorporated with that event, hence causing the original even to be remembered in a different way. The introduction of false signs misrepresented the participants’ memories (Memory (Psychology)). The power of misleading questions is demonstrated in the above study by Loftus & Palmer. An answer is determined by how the question is asked. The tendency to distort one’s memory of an event when later exposed to misleading information about it is known as the misinformation effect. The witness’s memory could be affected by questions asked by the police, friends or attorneys. Reconstruction of memory could also take place if information about the case or crime comes in weeks or months later. This may change what the witness has to say on the witness stand (Memory (Psychology)). The questions and information presented in the courtroom may cause the witness to remember the incident differently and the eyewitness testimony becomes inaccurate. Leading questions lead to the reconstruction of memory in order for the new information to fit into our already existing schemas. Leading questions therefore have the tendency to make eyewitness testimony unreliable in today’s judicial system. It is important for lawyers to know about the consequences of these questions and therefore construct their questions well. Anxiety and stress Along with leading questions it is said that anxiety and stress is a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. Some researchers have questioned whether attentional focus is a reason that causes poor recall of a violent incident. Clifford and Scott (1978) as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology, found that when individuals witness a rather violent incident they seem to remember less than individuals who witness a non-violent incident. They carried out a study whereby they presented a film with violent attacks to a group of participants. The control group who saw a less violent version of the film remembered more of the forty items about the event than the participants. The control group was not exposed to very stressful conditions as compared to the participants. Although this may have not been a real-life situation, the memory of the participants was affected by anxiety. An increase in anxiety and autonomic arousal is caused by violent incidents that in turn have a disadvantageous effect on memory. On the other hand, a study carried out by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) (as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) contradicts Clifford and Scott’s findings. The research gathered by Yullie and Cutshall was that of a real-life situation hence making their data more accurate. The researchers showed that individuals had accurate memories when they witnessed a stressful event up close. The event was of a shooting just outside a gun shop in Canada. The scene witnessed was of a criminal who robbed the gun shop off guns and money but eventually was shot six times and died on the spot. Straight after this shooting had taken place, the police asked to interview thirteen individuals who were there at the time of the event and had witnessed it. Five months later these same thirteen individuals were interviewed again. It was found that the recall was still as accurate as it was five months after witnessing the event. The two misleading questions that were presented by the police did not affect their memories or alter their testimony. However, one limitation to this study was that the witnesses interviewed were at different distances from the scene and the ones that were the closest went through a greater level of stress and this in turn may have assisted with their ability to remember the event vividly (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Through both the studies carried out about anxiety and memory recall we can say that experiments carried out under laboratory conditions may not give the same results as when it is a real-life situation. Memory recall of a real-life situation is accurate even after a few months and the loaded questions do have as much of an effect as they do in laboratory experiments (e. g Loftus & Palmer, 1974) (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). The above information gives a re-assurance that eyewitness testimony is not completely unreliable depending on the situation and the witness’s role in the event. There may be some situations where memory distortions take place and other situations where they do not. Whether memory distortion or reconstruction takes place or not depends on the witness’s state of mind at the time of the event. The emotional state of the individual may cloud their reason, judgment and perception; therefore it is necessary to be neutral and unbiased when witnessing a crime scene. Weapon Focus The study by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) also relates to ‘weapon focus’ as a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. When weapons are involved the witness is less likely to remember details about the riminal but is more likely to remember the details of the weapon (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). An experiment conducted by Johnson and Scott (1976) as cited in Loftus et al (56) illustrated this phenomenon. In the ‘no weapon’ condition participants overheard a mild conversation in the next room about an equipment failure, witne ssed a confederate enter the room with a grease pen, watched him utter a single line and leave. In the ‘weapon’ condition the participants overheard a violent conversation along with crashing objects, saw a confederate enter the room with a bloodied letter opener, watched him utter a single line and then leave. Participants in both condition witnessed the target individual for four seconds. It was found that 33% of the participants in the ‘bloody letter opener’ condition identified the culprit correctly and 49% of the participants in the greasy pen condition identified the culprit correctly. A reduced ability to remember the confederate was associated with the presence of a weapon. Jury’s should take into account whether or not weapons were involved in the crime. This is because the eyewitness will be less likely to recognize the criminal and an innocent individual may be held guilty. Our attention is usually drawn to the weapon and we ignore what else may be happening in our surroundings. Reconstructive Memory The reliability of eyewitness testimony can yet be argued through reconstructive memory. As mentioned earlier reconstructive memory is another one of the many psychological factors that has an effect on eyewitness testimony. Psychologist Neil Bartlett played a key role in associating reconstructive memory to eyewitness testimony as he stated that ‘recall is subject to personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values’. We have already established the fact that the human memory alters according to the way in which we store information in our brain, it is not stored exactly as it seems to be; different people interpret a situation differently and therefore store it in a way that makes sense to them. The brain stores information in schemas, but these schemas are able to distort unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ and unfamiliar knowledge in order to ‘fit in’ with the already stored information or schemas that we have which n turn results in unreliable eyewitness testimony (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Bartlett’s research about reconstructive memory found that â€Å"memory is an active process and subject to individual interpretation or construction† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). War of the Ghosts, (Bartlett (1932) as cited in Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) was his most famous study whereby he tried to show that we attempt to link what we remember with our e xisting schemas. In other words, our memory is not just an accurate footage of what has happened but it is what we make of it. Bartlett mentioned that we usually involuntarily modify our memories so they make more sense to us. In the study Bartlett’s participants heard a story and had to re-tell the story to another person. The story was a North American folktale called ‘The War of the Ghosts’. When the participants were asked to recount the details of the story, each individual seemed to tell it in their own individual way. As the participants re-told the story, it became shorter, puzzling ideas were rationalized or omitted altogether and details changed to become more conventional or familiar. The information about the ghosts was omitted as it was difficult to explain and participants recurrently recalled the idea of â€Å"not going because he hadn’t told his parents where he was going†, as that circumstance was more familiar to them. Through the above study Bartlett was able to conclude that our memory is distorted by the existing knowledge and schemas we have in the human brain. Therefore, it seems that each individual reconstructs their memory to conform to their individual values and attitudes towards the world. This is a clear indication that our memories are anything but reliable. How we view and remember things depends on our ethics, culture, belief and past experiences. Also through reconstructive memory we make hasty generalizations basing information on what we ‘think’ may have happened due to the information we already have stored. We shape and assemble the incident according to our stereotypes and expectations. This can further be elaborated through a study by Allport and Postman (1947) as cited in Jarvis & Russell (131), whereby they presented participants with a picture of a scruffy white man threatening a smart black man with a razor. Later when the participants were told to recall the picture they recalled that a scruffy black man was threatening a smart white man with a razor. This fitted in with the American stereotypes of that time; the participants reconstructed their memory according to their expectations. We can say that reconstructive memory is yet another reason that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable; however, some psychologists do believe that schema theory exaggerates the inaccuracy of memory. It cannot predict what and how people remember, as we do not know which schemas are being used. The study by Allport and Postman also ties down into another way our cognitive system introduces error, which is by the means of inference. Inference emphasizes on how humans tend to make assumptions past the literal meaning. Many memory distortions are a part of this inference whereby what the eyewitness says to have witnessed is not what was perceived but a mere extension of it, hence, leading to an inaccurate recall of the event or incident (Glassman, 440) Flaws of the eyewitness as an individual Confident Testimony Confident testimony is yet another flaw that tends to put innocent people in jail. When the witnesses say with absolute confidence that ‘this is the guy that did it†¦ I will never forget that face’, it is difficult to argue with their beliefs. Confidence is a strong characteristic and although people may make mistakes with their testimony the way in which they give their testimony has a strong outcome on the jury. It becomes difficult to question their evidence and discredit their feelings after knowing that the witness went through a horrible crime especially when they give their testimony with absolute assurance. Jurors will usually believe them. A major flaw that Elizabeth Loftus points out is that judges do not usually use the help of experts in order to bear out to the jury about the flaws of eyewitness testimony. It would be helpful to have a few cognitive psychologists as part of the jury in order to point out the factors that affect eyewitness testimony; however some judges will allow this while others will not. Jury’s that are unaware of the flaws of eyewitness testimony will have a larger percentile of wrongful verdicts compared to jury’s that are educated about he flaws. Elizabeth Loftus went on to explain that jury’s that are unaware of memory distortions will tend to decide their verdict from their ‘gut feeling’. Jury’s that are ignorant about these flaws rely greatly on the witness and have a propensity to discount the balance that needs to be present between the eyewitness testimony and the physical scientific evidence. Loftus also pointed out that when a witness repeatedly sees the accused they become encrypted in the victim’s memory, even if they are innocent. The victim may continually see the suspect in photos and line-ups during the duration of the investigation period and court case. This may make it possible that the witness will then not be able to recognize the true criminal anymore, especially if the crime was witnessed for a short time and the victim was not able to perceive every stimulus in the surrounding. Therefore, when the witness will testify with absolute confidence that the ‘suspect’ is the actual criminal, it will be difficult for the jury to argue (Miller, 2006). Age Psychological factors definitely play a huge role in eyewitness testimony but the characteristics of the witness also matter. Jury’s should also take into account the age and gender of the witness. Certain research has been done in order to identify the accuracy of a child’s eyewitness testimony; it is much less accurate than the adults’ testimony. This is because children are not able to give concrete answers to the questions that require much explanation. Children have less cognitive competence i. e. their information processing skills for problem solving, language and attention are undeveloped. Psychologists from University of Southampton conducted research to analyze a child’s ability to answer repeated questions during a testimony. When a child gives a testimony they are afraid to be incorrect therefore repeated questions are not beneficial when it comes to child eye-witnessing as the questions confuse them and make them think that their original story was not true. The first information provided by the child is always the best. The younger the child is, the less accurate the testimony will be. Children usually give incorrect information due to their need to be socially approved. Karpel et al (2001) as cited in Science Aid carried out research associated with age and eyewitness testimony. His aim was to see how reliable eyewitness testimony is in older people. Young adults (17 – 25) and older adults (65 – 85) were shown a video of a theft. They were then asked to recollect what they had seen in the video. The results of both age groups were compared and it was seen that the information provided by the young adults was more precise and their testimony was less likely to change when asked leading questions.. In order to ensure that information provided by elderly people is accurate it is advisable not to expose them to misleading questions as their memories are easily distorted. Also, older adults misremember context and therefore must be questioned carefully. As seen, age is another factor that affects eyewitness testimony and its reliability. It is important to know the age of the witness before moving on with the case as psychologists may have a slight idea about how reliable the provided information might be (Science Aid). Gender There has been no concrete evidence as yet that males and females have a significant difference when identifying a criminal. Research by Shapiro & Penrod (1986) as cited in Wells & Olson (280) found that females are more likely to make accurate identifications but are also more likely to make false identifications, as they are more likely to try and ‘attempt’ to identify. Due to this males and females capitulate an equal ability to identify criminals and give an eyewitness testimony. However since the male and female brains differ slightly, both genders will pay closer attention to different features of the incident, but the overall ability in eyewitness identification is impossible to tell apart. CONCLUSION Through research we have found that eyewitness testimony can be quite fallible and that there are a number of factors that seem to interfere with our memories. It is important for jury’s to be aware of these factors before placing a verdict and should not place great reliance on factors such as confidence and vivid descriptions of details. If possible, it is advisable o find other evidence rather than eyewitness testimony. A major limitation of the research investigated is that majority of the studies done in relation to eyewitness testimony are laboratory studies. This inhibits us to generalize the data collected to the real world. An implication for future research would be to carry out more interviews with individuals who have witnessed acts of crim e and violence rather than basing conclusions on laboratory studies. Also, it could be helpful to carry out research regarding a number of factors that affect eyewitness testimony (e. g. study that compares the ability to remember events when the variables are age, gender, weapons and misleading questions). The limitation presented does not change the fact that human memory is a very personal and comparative aspect and therefore cannot be a foundation for any important decisions. It is important to know that memory changes with time and every consequent attempt to recall the event will be just another skewed interpretation of the event. Eyewitnesses can refute or support the general facts about the case but the details and their testimony should not be put superior to the actual evidence presented in court. Studies have also proven that innocent people have been accused due to eyewitness testimony, this elaborates on the unreliability of it. Our ability to recall an event is affected by the information provided after the event, the level of stress and anxiety we are at during the time of the event also affects it, the presence of weapons also distorts our memory, reconstructive memory is yet another psychological factor that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable, our expectations, age and gender also play a role when giving a testimony. All these factors should be taken into consideration when the evidence provided is eyewitness testimony. The reliability of eyewitness testimony in today’s judicial system is very low and should be analyzed in depth before reaching conclusions. REFERENCES Engelhardt, L. (n. d. ). â€Å"The problem with Eyewitness Testimony†. Agora. Retrieved Jan. 02, 2010 from http://agora. stanford. edu/sjls/Issue%20One/fisher&tversky. html. Eyewitness Testimony Psychology research. (2007). Psychology Degree and A-level online resources. 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