Using the Spanish Verb Saber

Using the Spanish Verb Saber Saber is a common verb whose basic meaning is to have knowledge or to have knowledge of. Although it is often translated as to know, it should not be confused with conocer, which also is often translated as to know. The basic meaning of saber can be seen most clearly when it is followed by a noun or a phrase functioning as a noun:  ¿Sabe alguien los horarios de los buses desde el aeropuerto? Does anyone know the times of the buses from the airport?Nuestra presidente no sabe inglà ©s. Our president doesnt know English.No se sabe mucho de su muerte. Not much is known about his death.Sà © bien la verdad. I know the truth well.Nunca sabemos el futuro. We never know the future. When followed by an infinitive, saber often means to know how: El que no sabe escuchar no sabe entender. The one who doesnt know how to listen doesnt know how to understand.No saben escribir en cursiva. They dont know how to write in cursive.El problema era que los dos no sabà ­amos nadar. The problem was that the two of us didnt know how to swim. Saber can mean to find out. This is especially true when it is used in the preterite tense: Supe que todos tenemos cosas en comà ºn. I found out that all of us have things in common.Nunca supieron que estaban equivocados. They never found out that they were mistaken. In context, saber can be used to say to have news about someone or something: No sà © nada de mi madre. I dont have any news about my mother. The phrase saber a can be used to indicate what something tastes like: Yo no he comido iguana, pero se dice que sabe a pollo. I havent eaten iguana, but they say it tastes like chicken. Remember that saber is conjugated irregularly.

Incorporate These 15 Practices into Your Life to Find Success

Incorporate These 15 Practices into Your Life to Find Success We all have a tendency to stay close within our comfort zones. But what if the biggest growth potential and rewards are just beyond that zone? Or even way beyond it? Here are 15 ways to question your idea of what is normal, and how to expand both that concept and your comfort zone, and make a major difference in the course of your life.1. Question everythingTake nothing for granted. Be like the toddler always asking why. Keep searching for answers and examine norms from every angle. You never know what you might find.2. Be painfully honestBeing the most honest you have ever been is incredibly uncomfortable. It feels alien to tell 100% of the truth. If you’re burning to say something (good or bad) to someone in your life, you’ll never know the value that could be reached by saying it until you try. Start with a letter if the idea of a conversation freaks you out.3. MeditateEspecially when you’re busy, carving out time to sit and do nothing except breathing can mak e you feel insane. But the benefits far outweigh the perceived (negligible) costs. Sometimes, by stopping, you’ll greatly enhance your ability to keep going.4. Learn to be an early riserIt might sound awful, or you might not be a â€Å"morning person,† but imagine what you could get done if you got up extremely early, say 5am, when everyone else is asleep and you have the world to yourself. Begin your day in productive silence.5. Create thingsEveryone fancies themselves a creative person, but it’s so easy to choose Netflix and wine instead of a creative project when we come home from a long day. Persist and find yourself a creative outlet, then nurture it with diligence!6. Save your moneyStart keeping track of every penny you spend. Do this for a few months. Try paying for everything in cash, which will really drive home how much you’re spending. Once you cut the excess, you’ll be shocked at what you can save.7.  Give back to those in needVolunte ering can make you feel less self-centered, less hopeless, and like you’re part of something bigger. Don’t underestimate the value of community outreach.8. Maintain your fitnessKeep track of what you eat and what exercise you do. It may seem annoying and time-consuming, but it’s a great way to see the good vs. harm you’re doing to your body so you can make changes accordingly.9. Eat wellNutritious food helps you perform better. Limit your diet to food that has actual nutrition: lots of organic vegetables, lean proteins, healthy fats, etc. It’s better to be a weirdo about your food and to outshine the competition than to blend in at parties and be sluggish or unhealthy all your life.10.  Work on your speaking skillsPublic speaking is a daunting thing, but learning to do it adds an invaluable skill to your toolbox. Everyone is scared of it at first. Take small opportunities to cut your teeth and when you really need to stand up in front of a crowd, you’ll be ready.11. Talk to people who interest youIntrigued by someone? Strike up a conversation. What do you have to lose? Worst case scenario: rejection. Best case: a new friend! And rejection is a normal part of life, so there is nothing for you to fear.12. Put away your phoneTake a digital detox every now and then, let your mind wander and mull over projects and problems. Also, put it away in social settings. Constantly checking or looking things up is just plain rude.13. Focus your efforts on one thing at a timeDon’t try all the things at once. Pick one at a time and commit to mastering that thing. Once you’re there, feel free to pick another. The road to mastery is accomplished one task at a time. Intention and attention are important.14. Set scary goalsStretch your limits by setting goals you’re not sure you can reach. Pick something harder and scarier and more uncomfortable than you’ve ever done and give yourself a year to do it. This mig ht be as simple as attempting to run 7 miles when you’ve hardly ever run 1. But the experience of channeling your physical and mental reserves to get it done is almost always worth it.15. Get help if you need itTherapy might be the number one most uncomfortable thing to do. It’s an exhausting chore to examine your own biases, defenses, motivations, and those of the people in your life. But it always gets you closer to the truth. And can lead to all sorts of breakthroughs in the short and long term.

Organizational Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organizational Ethics - Essay Example Businesses that operate ethically are assumed to have a lot of gains but it is not as simple as it sounds especially in an ever increasingly competitive environment. The leader has to make sure all the stockholder’s interests are taken care of and at the same time ensure all laws are adhered to and also act according to moral principles. The problem is; does the leader do what is right according to his or her opinion or what is right according to the moral standards of society? Sometimes these two views conflict and the leader have to make this important decision. This becomes more complex as the company becomes global due to diversity of cultures. Morality according to Fieser and Moseley (2012) guides what is permitted and what is not or what is â€Å"right† and what is â€Å"wrong†. However, it all depends on what moral theory one is applying. Understanding business ethics is important and as such this paper will focus on how various companies solve their ethic al dilemmas. This will be accomplished by using an example of a profit organization (Google) and a non-profit organization (United Service Organizations). First, the paper will give the profiles of both companies and the ethical issues they faced or are currently facing. Secondly, personal reflections on the ethical actions taken by the companies will be evaluated. This will be followed by a critique of these actions taken based on philosophical theories. Lastly, a brief summary of the main issues will be given. Company Profile: Google Google Inc is a global leader in the technology sector specializing in the search engine industry. It was founded and incorporated in 1998 by Larry Page and his co-founder Sergy Brin. It is a profit making organization whose mission is â€Å"to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful† (Google.com, 2013). It operates more than 70 offices situated in more than 60 countries and an employee base of more than 30,000 employees worldwide. Its headquarters are situated in Mountain View, California with various branches in the US, Asia Pacific, Africa, Europe, Latin America, United Arab Emirates, and Canada. It is a global company that offers services to both people and businesses. It is involved in offering search services, advertising, and cloud computing for businesses by offering products such as AdWords, AdSense, Google maps, blog searches, Gmail, scholarly papers, books, mobile content, chrome and translation. It started as a small company in a garage but through the years it has developed to become a dominant player in the search engine industry. This is through its aggressive acquisition strategy and new product developments (Google.com, 2013). The company derives its revenue mainly from advertising, websites, and hardware products. All these revenues are acquired through hard work as entailed in the company’s value statement â€Å"don’t be evil† (Google.co m). It has been experiencing a revenue and profit growth over the years as shown in the table 1 below. USD 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total Revenue 23650.56 29321.00 37905.00 50175.00 Gross profit 14806.45 18904.00 24717.00 29670.00 Table 1: Annual Data extracted from Google financial Reports. Most of this revenue comes from advertising and it is far above its competitors in the same industry such as Microsoft, eBay, Face Book, and Apple. Its sales growth of 15.48% year on year is above competitor’s average revenue growth of 6.45% according to CSIMarket (2013). The revenue growth of the various companies year on year is: Google 15.48%; Apple Inc 0.86%; eBay 14.1 %; Microsoft 10.17% and Yahoo Inc -5.22%. From these statistics, it is evident that

Piece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Piece - Essay Example Although there are other minor scale symphonies attributed to Mozart’s name but there are doubts as to authenticity. However, Symphony Number Forty and Symphony Number Twenty Five are minor scale symphonies both authentically attributed to Mozart (Zaslaw). This paper will explore Mozart’s biography, his Symphony Number Forty in terms of its historical context and its description in order to bring out the nuances in this great musical piece. Mozart’s Life and Times It would not be unjustified to term Mozart as one of the chief canons of Western classical music. Mozart hailed from a period when Europe was teeming with musical activity. Mozart was aided in his musical endeavours at an early age by his family background. Wolfgang Mozart’s father, Leopold Mozart was a practising musician and was quick to realise his son’s talents early on. Mozart was encouraged to take up music at a very early age and was able to compose as early as five years old. The e arliest demonstrations by Mozart were based on the violin and the piano and this left quite a strong impression on the maturing Mozart later. The early works of Mozart tend to revolve around the violin and the piano in large part especially his concertos. ... Mozart moved into the Austrian capital and was soon on his way to fame although Mozart’s financial troubles were far from over. The prolific character and the quality of Mozart’s work were able to project him into the limelight in Vienna and around. However, forbidding circumstances such as the Austro Turk war from the same era proved to be a drain on the fiscal resources of Mozart’s patrons. Consequently, Mozart found himself in fiscal trouble for some time. Eventually, Mozart’s circumstances began to recover but the great composer was soon claimed by a mysterious illness. Wolfgang Mozart died in 1791 at age thirty five. Mozart’s untimely death has been the subject of much speculation over the years and most people consider his early death a setback to Western classical music (Robbins). History of Symphony Number Forty The origin of Symphony Number Forty has been traced to Mozart with authentication. The symphony was noted down by Mozart in his per sonal notebook on July the 25th, 1788. It must be noted that Symphony Number Forty hails from one of the most prolific periods in Mozart’s life. The period in which this symphony was created consisted of only a few weeks but works from this period by Mozart are hailed as masterpieces in their own right (Deutsch). Symphony Number Forty has come under debate for Mozart’s personal viewership. It has been argued that Mozart was never able to hear his Symphony Number Forty performed during his lifetime. The time between the composition of Symphony Number Forty and Mozart’s death is brief so it is argued that Mozart died before any large performances of Symphony Number Forty. However, there are other commentators who reason that Mozart was party to Symphony

Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

Huckleberry Finn Essay In the protagonist Huckleberry Finn as he is depicted by Mark Twain, Emerson’s idea of the American scholar is epitomized. The following essay will present the points of Mark Twain as an American scholar through the character Huckleberry Finn; it is through Huckleberry Finn that Emerson’s ideas of nature, books and action become realized and this essay will bring to the forefront of its argument these facts among many other ideas of Emerson’s American scholar are epitomized in Twain’s character Huck. Huckleberry Finn is a character whose main purpose seems almost like a young tale of the Iliad in which fate seems to simply happen to Huck Finn. The events leading up to his stay with the widow Douglas he accounts are no fault of his own, as the metaphor of the story is found with the great Mississippi River so does Huck Finn’s life simply flow along until he makes a conscious choice. This choice comes into being when Huck decides that ‘sivilised’ life is not for him. In the rejection of civilized life Twain is brining in elements of Emerson’s ideals: Huck Finn is a very simplistic character and his thwarting of Widow Douglas best attempts of making him presentable to society become the correlation of Emerson’s American scholar. The American scholar according to Emerson is best found in nature since it is with nature that man learns how the world works; in the trees, and in the roots. This classification allows a man to simplify his life; life is easier with just nature and without civilization. Thus, it may be surmised that Huck’s doffing off of nature is Twain’s own sentiment on the subject of culture and the evilness of society. In Huckleberry Finn’s disappearance from civilized life, after his father kidnaps him and Huck fakes his own death, the voice of Emerson is best found with Jim the slave. Jim gives advice to Huckleberry Finn about the disappointments found in the world and how a man may be able to handle himself by making conscious choices. In the litany of Emerson, this concept is also found by way of Emerson stating that a scholar must gather for himself the appropriate information from different books in order to find an organized opinion about a subject and to take a side of each books’ opinion in order to find himself. Jim states similarly to Finn that he should experience what life has to offer and decide for himself the difference between right and wrong, morality and immoral nature. Thus, the point of going down the Mississippi is to gain as much knowledge and experience as possible in order to later filter opinion from fact, one’s own thoughts from society’s mores. It is in the creation of man’s own thoughts, of Finn deciding throughout the journey that no man should be a slave that Huckleberry Finn becomes a man, becomes an American scholar since he is finally thinking for himself. He rejects Widow Douglas, his father, society in whole and travels with Jim collecting his own thoughts and deciding what is wrong and what is right in the nature of man. In a subtler note, Emerson states that the American scholar must take action and in this capacity Mark Twain does not falter with his protagonist Huckleberry Finn. Huck’s action consists in the part of the story where the Dauphin capture Jim and subsequently sells him in order to receive the reward. Huck is completely outraged by this betrayal and in the course of the story this signifies the first time that he acts upon his own judgment and he rejects the advice of his conscience which tells him that by helping Jim escape to freedom he is in a way stealing Miss Watson’s property. Huck tells himself, All right, then, Ill go to hell! (Twain), Huck resolves to free Jim. Emerson’s concept of the American scholar persists with this idea of action; Emerson states that the scholar must fill every moment of every day with action. The scholar should accordingly work different jobs in order to become fluent in a myriad of vocations. The scholar must also be a poylglot in order to express himself with different thoughts. In the language of the text Huck Finn speaks a very succinct colloquial language as well as proper grammar at times. Thus, he is fulfilling Emerson’s concepts. Finn’s epiphany while traveling and having conversations with Jim is such that he discovers man is his own master; in discovering that Jim has to hide in order to be free and comparing that with Finn’s own hiding in order not be kidnapped he relates himself to Jim. The discovery upon the river is as Emerson highlights, â€Å"And, finally, is not the true scholar the only true master? But the old oracle said, `All things have two handles: beware of the wrong one. In life, too often, the scholar errs with mankind and forfeits his privilege. Let us see him in his school, and consider him in reference to the main influences he receives† (Emerson). Thus, Finn epitomizes Emerson’s view of the American scholar through not only his thoughts but also his behaviors and his actions.

Brennaghs Hamlet Essay -- essays research papers

Often when a movie is adapted from a play, there are several aspects which are adjusted or completely lost. This often depends on the directors point of view as well as the casting director. In Kenneth Branagh’s movie “Hamlet'; only a small number of aspects were lost from the movement of the play to the movie. The movie was ‘word for word’ of the play with the exception of a few moved silique. Therefore, the plot or order did not change. The scene where Hamlet meets his father, 1.5, was very well done; conjuring great emotions of fear and suspense. In addition, the final scene was adequately performed evoking anxiety and thrill for the viewer. The ghost of Hamlet was very disappointing at first but later developed into and excellent portrayal. The characters who played Marcellus, the first Grave digger and Oris, Jack Lemmon, Billy Crystal, and Robin Williams respectively, were fairly poor selections by the casting director. They lacked a certain Shakespearian character as famous comedians. It could not be forgotten making the choices dispiriting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  “You tremble and look pale'; (1.1.53). The first viewing of the ghost causes the guards great fear. They are unsure if what they have seen is “something more than just fantasy'; (1.1.54). It appears to be the body of the late King Hamlet but perhaps it could be their boggled minds. When the ghost enter a second time, they confirm that it was in fact the ghost of Hamlet. This terrifies and mystifies Bernard, Heratio, and Marcellus. The reader feels all of the emotions along with these characters, as it is expressed through the dialogue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Act 1 Scene 4 and 5, when Hamlet meets and speaks with the ghost of his father, the fear increases. You begin reading faster and feel like you are running after the spirit with Hamlet. The actual conversation between the two is very fast and flows very nicely. Once agin making the scene more intense. Throughout the scene the dramatic effects are heighten by the ghost’s long lamented speeches to his son. The entire scene is one of climactic drama.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the movie, the ghost first appears to be a statue. He brings about no feelings of horror in the viewer. This sets the viewer up for grave disappointment as in the play it is s... ...p;  Ã‚  Perhaps Branagh used these actors for their names to help pull in the ratings. If this is the case, the ratings would have been high without them. Perhaps, he used them to get the image of them as “uneducated stars'; out of peoples’ minds. Or perhaps they used him for the dame reason. Either way, their parts do not fit the roles they played. Regardless the movie was excellent and it was immensely enjoyed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The movie kept you at the edge of your seat from the ‘ghost scene’ on. Although it was four hours, it seemed to go by much faster. It is always interesting to see a director’s interpretation or portrayal of the play. Kenneth Branagh did an excellent job. “2 thumbs up!';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As an amazing play is moved to a movie, it is very sad to see characters or scenes lost. In Branagh’s “Hamlet'; very little is lost in his adaptation. This is very pleasing as the play is sensational The only problem faced is that of the comedic actors. This did not effect the outcome of the movie and many are looking forward to more of Branagh’s work.

All About Eve Essay

â€Å"..and, in the last analysis, nothing is any good unless you can look up just before dinner or turn around in bed – and there he is. Without that, you’re not a woman† Is this the message of the film? Made in 1950, the film ‘All About Eve’ screen written and directed by Joseph Mankiewicz, was deliberately engineered to entice women back into their homes after WWII had forced many to assume working roles in the outside world. The film focuses on publicizing the importance of the image of a nuclear family and traditional gender roles and how finding love is endorsed as the ‘proper’ course for women. This is evident through the roles and character development of the three main women in the film; Karen Richards, Margo Channing and Eve Harrington. Through these characters, the film explores the fulfillment of an archetypal 1950s American housewife and the hollowness of actresses’ career success compared to marriage. Furthermore, the film depicts self-supporting women as a threat to conservative values as they inhabited masculine traits. In the film, Mankiewicz emphasizes the security, gratification and permanence in housewives post Cold War. This is evident through the role of Karen Richards, ‘the wife of†¦ playwright’ Lloyd Richards. Lloyd and Karen personifies the ideal marriage where Lloyd is the bread winner, and Karen operates as a traditional, ‘happy little housewife’. Mankiewicz repeatedly frames Karen with characteristics of pureness and happiness through the use of bright camera lighting in mid-close up shots, portraying her as luminescent and angelic. In addition to this, Karen is often shot in light coloured costumes in contrasts to Eve and Margo, who are continuously framed in dark colours throughout the film, suggesting her innocence. Both of these techniques highlight her fulfillment from marriage compared to Eve and Margo who are independent and unma rried. Karen’s character is used as a reflection of 1950s America stereotypical housewife who is completely defined and loyal to her husband. This is evident during the film hinting Lloyd’s indiscretions, Karen remains loyal to him, and even blames herself for his unfaithful behavior, where she wonders in a voiceover about ‘that helplessness you feel when you have no talent outside of loving your husband.’ Here, love is represented as a ‘talent’ and the generic mode of the line indicates a duty of wives to their husband. Ultimately, Karen is a reflection of the traditional housewife in 1950s America and is perceived as the most stable and mature female character as marriage has provided her  with financial and emotional security, social mobility and protection. Throughout the film, career accomplishments and fame is presented as fleeting and temporary, whilst marriage is emphasized as the utmost success for a woman. Mankiewicz establishes that femal es who rise to the top of their profession are only to be faced with the glass ceiling of the patriarchal status quo. This is apparent in the character Margo Channing, a ‘great star’ whose days as Broadways reigning star are numbered as she is at the peak of her career, at the age of 40. Although she is ‘talented, famous [and] wealthy’ Margo is insecure that when she retires from the theatre she’ll be alone, without a career and without a man to love her. Marriage is offered as a solution for Margo, and only once she makes the decision that allows her to ‘get back to being a woman’, do we see a gradual shift from Margo being an actress to being a ‘proper’ married women. The gratification from marriage is highlighted through the use of camera lighting in the cub room scene after Bill and Margo announces that they’re getting married. A close up shot of Margo’s smiling face and relaxed manner with radiant lighting similar to Karen’s indicates true happiness as she has achieved the role of housewife. Through portraying her p ositively, the film asserts this will provide her with the happiness and ‘sentiment’ she had been actively rejecting. In short, the use of Margo’s growing happiness as she transitions from professional career for marriage, the film positions the audience to view domesticity as providing ultimate fulfillment for women. In an era where women were expected to conform to social norms, those who failed to take on the role of a nurturing mother with a financially secured husband were labeled as a threat to society. Mankiewicz uses the characters Margo and Eve to explore how independent and successful careered women possess masculine traits because they do not have a man. Prior to Margo’s marriage with Bill, the film portrays her with a masculine demeanor through her deep voice and posture. In the scene of Margo’s voiceover, the audience can see that Margo is the head chief of the house, with Birdie and Eve jostling for her favour. This highlights Margo’s masculinity as during this era, the males were the dominant figure in the house, and the wives role was to please their husband. Therefore, Margo is not presented as an ideal woman as she takes on the male role in her own home. Only once Margo marries Bill, we see her conform to society’s expectations of married woman, as she leaves  paid employment upon marriage to become a domestic housewife. Mankiewicz also depicts Eve, an independent and constructed success as manipulative, conniving and calculating mastermind driven by personal ambition, all of which were dominant values in a masculine society at this time. Furthermore, women without a man to love were displayed with masculine characteristics, and thus not truly a woman because they did not abide by reactionary American values. Ultimately, the film ‘All about Eve’ is marked by a polarizing gender ideology, used to promote marriage as a romantic ideal and women. Through the roles of Karen, Margo and Eve, the film highlights that married women find happiness from serving their husband, the inevitable emotional emptiness that women will experience e if they reject their domestic roles in their pursuit of a career, and how independent women show traits that aren’t consistent as a true 1950s women. Thus the film suggests that domesticity is what provides women with ultimate satisfaction.

Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence

Eyewitness Testimony as a source of reliable evidence In relation to cognitive psychology, is eyewitness testimony reliable in today’s judicial system? Word Count: 3944 ABSTRACT Is eyewitness testimony a reliable source of evidence in today’s judicial system? Many jurors tend to pay close attention to eyewitness testimony assuming that what they hear is exactly as it happened. They ignore the psychology behind remembering an event. Our brain is a complex structure and it is difficult to absorb every stimulus in our surrounding. We pay great attention to some aspects of a situation while completely ignoring others. It is advisable for expert psychologists to be present during a court case that involves eyewitness testimony, as they are more aware of its flaws. We store information in schemas and when we gain new knowledge it is altered in order to fit these schemas. Leading psychologists such as Elizabeth Loftus, Neil Bartlett and Yullie & Cutshall have carried out research in order to demonstrate how our memory can be altered by psychological factors such as leading questions, reconstructive memory and weapon focus. This research paper contains a vast number of experiments and studies done in order to illustrate the unreliability of our memory and whether courts should rely on eyewitness testimony as a prime source. Age and gender also serve as factors that influence eyewitness testimony. Through research and analysis, it is concluded in this paper that eyewitness testimony should not be given superiority over other actual evidence presented, as our memory is the least reliable source. It is worthwhile to carry out further investigation about the case if eyewitness testimony is the only evidence available, as false testimonies could lead to an innocent individual being charged guilty. Word Count: 260 CONTENTS Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 2 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 4 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 7 Misleading Questions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 7 Anxiety and Stress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 9 Weapon Focus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 11 Reconstructive Memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 11 Confident Testimony†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 14 Age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 15 Gender†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 16 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 17 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 19 INTRODUCTION The reliability of eyewitness testimony has often been questioned in cases of crime and violence but yet the judicial syste m seems to ignore its flaws. Numerous psychologists have carried out experiments and studies regarding this issue. Eyewitness testimony has a large psychological background that judges, lawyers and the jury seem to ignore. Our ability to remember certain situations and events may be distorted according to the time and place that the event occurred or the time and place that the eyewitness testimony is given. Cognitive psychologists have carried out profound research about this phenomenon and have found that eyewitness testimony can be related to human schemas, reconstructive memory and our ability to remember. The knowledge we have gained from the world is stored in our brain as an organized package of information called a schema. The ‘schema theory’ states that the knowledge we have already gained through our life has a major influence on what we remember. According to Cohen (1986) as cited in Gross (64), the human mind uses past experiences in order to deal with new experiences. Our behavior is guided by the set of schemas that we have in our brain. The new experiences that we face are not just ‘replicated’ into our memory but instead are reconstructed in order to fit our schemas. The reconstruction of memory is an active process and happens throughout our life (Gross, 64). Therefore, how we perceive an event is strongly influenced by our past experiences. Human memory is seen as an unreliable source when we apply the idea of reconstructive and interpretative nature of memory to eyewitness testimony. The probability of people being wrongly accused increases as the importance of eyewitness testimony in the cases of accidents and crimes increases, and therefore the guilty do not come to justice (Gross, 64). Many experiments conclude that law professionals and judges rely and place their decisions on eyewitness testimony, however, researchers investigated on situations whereby the innocent had been accused. As cited in Miller’s article (2006), Gary Wells (1998) researched on forty such cases and with the help of DNA testing it was found that all forty convicted suspects were actually innocent. The witnesses wrongfully accused the suspects in thirty-six of these cases. The human brain has a limited capacity to deal with the incoming information but yet every moment we encounter a large variety of stimuli like sights, sounds and smells. However, as mentioned above if we encounter stimuli which conflict with our schemas, we reconstruct our memory in order to fit our chemas. The human brain therefore focuses on some aspects of the situation while ignoring the others in order to cope with the sensory barrage. This process of choosing stimuli is called selective attention. Eyewitnesses tend to collect information that relates to their interests and may ignore other vital aspects of the event (Glassman, 5). It is difficult for witnesses to reconsider their initial understanding once the y have stated facts in a specific way or have already indentified an individual as the performer, due to the reconstruction of their memory (e. . once an eyewitness recognizes an individual in a line-up it is likely for them to recognize the same individual in later line-ups even though that individual may not be the performer). Jury’s place great reliance on eyewitness testimony and ignore the dangers of false memories (Engelhardt, n. d). In view of these findings, this work will investigate the â€Å"extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable in today’s judicial system† focusing on major factors that influence our memory and ability to remember. Cognitive psychology plays a major role in this investigation as it involves the idea of memory and schemas. DISCUSSION â€Å"An account given by people of an event they have witnessed† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) is usually referred to as an eyewitness testimony. One may be asked to recall the event they witnessed and describe what happened. Jury’s tend to find eyewitness testimony to be a reliable source of information and pay close attention to it, but the witness may have had a hard time remembering the event and the testimony could be inaccurate. Research done by a number of psychologists regarding eyewitness testimony found that it could be affected by many psychological factors such as leading questions, anxiety and stress, weapons and reconstructive memory (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Factors such as age and gender could also affect the way in which individuals remember events. Influence of psychological factors on eyewitness testimony Misleading questions American psychologist, Elizabeth Loftus, represented the application of Cognitive psychology to the real world. Her experiments demonstrated how misleading information could cause eyewitnesses to reconstruct their memories (Gross, 64). A leading question is a question that contains information previously unknown to the witness. In one of her studies with Palmer (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) as cited in the article Memory (Psychology), the participants watched a videotape that showed an automobile accident consisting of two cars. After watching the videotape the participants were presented with a questionnaire whereby the question was altered for groups of participants. One question asked, â€Å"About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? † For other participants the verb ‘hit’ was replaced by ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’, or ‘contacted’. Even though all participants viewed the same videotape, their speed estimates differed considerably depending on how the question was asked. When the verb ‘contacted’ was used, the average speed estimate was 32 mph, when the verb was ‘hit’ it was 34 mph, 38mph when it was ‘bumped’, 39 mph when it was ‘collided’, and 41 mph when it was smash. Loftus carried out a follow up study a week later whereby she asked the participants whether there was any broken glass in the videotape. Participants that were presented with the verb ‘smashed’ were twice as likely to ‘remember’ any broken glass than the participants that were presented with the verb ‘hit’. The information that came in much later after the original event had occurred incorporated with that event, hence causing the original even to be remembered in a different way. The introduction of false signs misrepresented the participants’ memories (Memory (Psychology)). The power of misleading questions is demonstrated in the above study by Loftus & Palmer. An answer is determined by how the question is asked. The tendency to distort one’s memory of an event when later exposed to misleading information about it is known as the misinformation effect. The witness’s memory could be affected by questions asked by the police, friends or attorneys. Reconstruction of memory could also take place if information about the case or crime comes in weeks or months later. This may change what the witness has to say on the witness stand (Memory (Psychology)). The questions and information presented in the courtroom may cause the witness to remember the incident differently and the eyewitness testimony becomes inaccurate. Leading questions lead to the reconstruction of memory in order for the new information to fit into our already existing schemas. Leading questions therefore have the tendency to make eyewitness testimony unreliable in today’s judicial system. It is important for lawyers to know about the consequences of these questions and therefore construct their questions well. Anxiety and stress Along with leading questions it is said that anxiety and stress is a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. Some researchers have questioned whether attentional focus is a reason that causes poor recall of a violent incident. Clifford and Scott (1978) as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology, found that when individuals witness a rather violent incident they seem to remember less than individuals who witness a non-violent incident. They carried out a study whereby they presented a film with violent attacks to a group of participants. The control group who saw a less violent version of the film remembered more of the forty items about the event than the participants. The control group was not exposed to very stressful conditions as compared to the participants. Although this may have not been a real-life situation, the memory of the participants was affected by anxiety. An increase in anxiety and autonomic arousal is caused by violent incidents that in turn have a disadvantageous effect on memory. On the other hand, a study carried out by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) (as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) contradicts Clifford and Scott’s findings. The research gathered by Yullie and Cutshall was that of a real-life situation hence making their data more accurate. The researchers showed that individuals had accurate memories when they witnessed a stressful event up close. The event was of a shooting just outside a gun shop in Canada. The scene witnessed was of a criminal who robbed the gun shop off guns and money but eventually was shot six times and died on the spot. Straight after this shooting had taken place, the police asked to interview thirteen individuals who were there at the time of the event and had witnessed it. Five months later these same thirteen individuals were interviewed again. It was found that the recall was still as accurate as it was five months after witnessing the event. The two misleading questions that were presented by the police did not affect their memories or alter their testimony. However, one limitation to this study was that the witnesses interviewed were at different distances from the scene and the ones that were the closest went through a greater level of stress and this in turn may have assisted with their ability to remember the event vividly (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Through both the studies carried out about anxiety and memory recall we can say that experiments carried out under laboratory conditions may not give the same results as when it is a real-life situation. Memory recall of a real-life situation is accurate even after a few months and the loaded questions do have as much of an effect as they do in laboratory experiments (e. g Loftus & Palmer, 1974) (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). The above information gives a re-assurance that eyewitness testimony is not completely unreliable depending on the situation and the witness’s role in the event. There may be some situations where memory distortions take place and other situations where they do not. Whether memory distortion or reconstruction takes place or not depends on the witness’s state of mind at the time of the event. The emotional state of the individual may cloud their reason, judgment and perception; therefore it is necessary to be neutral and unbiased when witnessing a crime scene. Weapon Focus The study by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) also relates to ‘weapon focus’ as a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. When weapons are involved the witness is less likely to remember details about the riminal but is more likely to remember the details of the weapon (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). An experiment conducted by Johnson and Scott (1976) as cited in Loftus et al (56) illustrated this phenomenon. In the ‘no weapon’ condition participants overheard a mild conversation in the next room about an equipment failure, witne ssed a confederate enter the room with a grease pen, watched him utter a single line and leave. In the ‘weapon’ condition the participants overheard a violent conversation along with crashing objects, saw a confederate enter the room with a bloodied letter opener, watched him utter a single line and then leave. Participants in both condition witnessed the target individual for four seconds. It was found that 33% of the participants in the ‘bloody letter opener’ condition identified the culprit correctly and 49% of the participants in the greasy pen condition identified the culprit correctly. A reduced ability to remember the confederate was associated with the presence of a weapon. Jury’s should take into account whether or not weapons were involved in the crime. This is because the eyewitness will be less likely to recognize the criminal and an innocent individual may be held guilty. Our attention is usually drawn to the weapon and we ignore what else may be happening in our surroundings. Reconstructive Memory The reliability of eyewitness testimony can yet be argued through reconstructive memory. As mentioned earlier reconstructive memory is another one of the many psychological factors that has an effect on eyewitness testimony. Psychologist Neil Bartlett played a key role in associating reconstructive memory to eyewitness testimony as he stated that ‘recall is subject to personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values’. We have already established the fact that the human memory alters according to the way in which we store information in our brain, it is not stored exactly as it seems to be; different people interpret a situation differently and therefore store it in a way that makes sense to them. The brain stores information in schemas, but these schemas are able to distort unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ and unfamiliar knowledge in order to ‘fit in’ with the already stored information or schemas that we have which n turn results in unreliable eyewitness testimony (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Bartlett’s research about reconstructive memory found that â€Å"memory is an active process and subject to individual interpretation or construction† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). War of the Ghosts, (Bartlett (1932) as cited in Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) was his most famous study whereby he tried to show that we attempt to link what we remember with our e xisting schemas. In other words, our memory is not just an accurate footage of what has happened but it is what we make of it. Bartlett mentioned that we usually involuntarily modify our memories so they make more sense to us. In the study Bartlett’s participants heard a story and had to re-tell the story to another person. The story was a North American folktale called ‘The War of the Ghosts’. When the participants were asked to recount the details of the story, each individual seemed to tell it in their own individual way. As the participants re-told the story, it became shorter, puzzling ideas were rationalized or omitted altogether and details changed to become more conventional or familiar. The information about the ghosts was omitted as it was difficult to explain and participants recurrently recalled the idea of â€Å"not going because he hadn’t told his parents where he was going†, as that circumstance was more familiar to them. Through the above study Bartlett was able to conclude that our memory is distorted by the existing knowledge and schemas we have in the human brain. Therefore, it seems that each individual reconstructs their memory to conform to their individual values and attitudes towards the world. This is a clear indication that our memories are anything but reliable. How we view and remember things depends on our ethics, culture, belief and past experiences. Also through reconstructive memory we make hasty generalizations basing information on what we ‘think’ may have happened due to the information we already have stored. We shape and assemble the incident according to our stereotypes and expectations. This can further be elaborated through a study by Allport and Postman (1947) as cited in Jarvis & Russell (131), whereby they presented participants with a picture of a scruffy white man threatening a smart black man with a razor. Later when the participants were told to recall the picture they recalled that a scruffy black man was threatening a smart white man with a razor. This fitted in with the American stereotypes of that time; the participants reconstructed their memory according to their expectations. We can say that reconstructive memory is yet another reason that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable; however, some psychologists do believe that schema theory exaggerates the inaccuracy of memory. It cannot predict what and how people remember, as we do not know which schemas are being used. The study by Allport and Postman also ties down into another way our cognitive system introduces error, which is by the means of inference. Inference emphasizes on how humans tend to make assumptions past the literal meaning. Many memory distortions are a part of this inference whereby what the eyewitness says to have witnessed is not what was perceived but a mere extension of it, hence, leading to an inaccurate recall of the event or incident (Glassman, 440) Flaws of the eyewitness as an individual Confident Testimony Confident testimony is yet another flaw that tends to put innocent people in jail. When the witnesses say with absolute confidence that ‘this is the guy that did it†¦ I will never forget that face’, it is difficult to argue with their beliefs. Confidence is a strong characteristic and although people may make mistakes with their testimony the way in which they give their testimony has a strong outcome on the jury. It becomes difficult to question their evidence and discredit their feelings after knowing that the witness went through a horrible crime especially when they give their testimony with absolute assurance. Jurors will usually believe them. A major flaw that Elizabeth Loftus points out is that judges do not usually use the help of experts in order to bear out to the jury about the flaws of eyewitness testimony. It would be helpful to have a few cognitive psychologists as part of the jury in order to point out the factors that affect eyewitness testimony; however some judges will allow this while others will not. Jury’s that are unaware of the flaws of eyewitness testimony will have a larger percentile of wrongful verdicts compared to jury’s that are educated about he flaws. Elizabeth Loftus went on to explain that jury’s that are unaware of memory distortions will tend to decide their verdict from their ‘gut feeling’. Jury’s that are ignorant about these flaws rely greatly on the witness and have a propensity to discount the balance that needs to be present between the eyewitness testimony and the physical scientific evidence. Loftus also pointed out that when a witness repeatedly sees the accused they become encrypted in the victim’s memory, even if they are innocent. The victim may continually see the suspect in photos and line-ups during the duration of the investigation period and court case. This may make it possible that the witness will then not be able to recognize the true criminal anymore, especially if the crime was witnessed for a short time and the victim was not able to perceive every stimulus in the surrounding. Therefore, when the witness will testify with absolute confidence that the ‘suspect’ is the actual criminal, it will be difficult for the jury to argue (Miller, 2006). Age Psychological factors definitely play a huge role in eyewitness testimony but the characteristics of the witness also matter. Jury’s should also take into account the age and gender of the witness. Certain research has been done in order to identify the accuracy of a child’s eyewitness testimony; it is much less accurate than the adults’ testimony. This is because children are not able to give concrete answers to the questions that require much explanation. Children have less cognitive competence i. e. their information processing skills for problem solving, language and attention are undeveloped. Psychologists from University of Southampton conducted research to analyze a child’s ability to answer repeated questions during a testimony. When a child gives a testimony they are afraid to be incorrect therefore repeated questions are not beneficial when it comes to child eye-witnessing as the questions confuse them and make them think that their original story was not true. The first information provided by the child is always the best. The younger the child is, the less accurate the testimony will be. Children usually give incorrect information due to their need to be socially approved. Karpel et al (2001) as cited in Science Aid carried out research associated with age and eyewitness testimony. His aim was to see how reliable eyewitness testimony is in older people. Young adults (17 – 25) and older adults (65 – 85) were shown a video of a theft. They were then asked to recollect what they had seen in the video. The results of both age groups were compared and it was seen that the information provided by the young adults was more precise and their testimony was less likely to change when asked leading questions.. In order to ensure that information provided by elderly people is accurate it is advisable not to expose them to misleading questions as their memories are easily distorted. Also, older adults misremember context and therefore must be questioned carefully. As seen, age is another factor that affects eyewitness testimony and its reliability. It is important to know the age of the witness before moving on with the case as psychologists may have a slight idea about how reliable the provided information might be (Science Aid). Gender There has been no concrete evidence as yet that males and females have a significant difference when identifying a criminal. Research by Shapiro & Penrod (1986) as cited in Wells & Olson (280) found that females are more likely to make accurate identifications but are also more likely to make false identifications, as they are more likely to try and ‘attempt’ to identify. Due to this males and females capitulate an equal ability to identify criminals and give an eyewitness testimony. However since the male and female brains differ slightly, both genders will pay closer attention to different features of the incident, but the overall ability in eyewitness identification is impossible to tell apart. CONCLUSION Through research we have found that eyewitness testimony can be quite fallible and that there are a number of factors that seem to interfere with our memories. It is important for jury’s to be aware of these factors before placing a verdict and should not place great reliance on factors such as confidence and vivid descriptions of details. If possible, it is advisable o find other evidence rather than eyewitness testimony. A major limitation of the research investigated is that majority of the studies done in relation to eyewitness testimony are laboratory studies. This inhibits us to generalize the data collected to the real world. An implication for future research would be to carry out more interviews with individuals who have witnessed acts of crim e and violence rather than basing conclusions on laboratory studies. Also, it could be helpful to carry out research regarding a number of factors that affect eyewitness testimony (e. g. study that compares the ability to remember events when the variables are age, gender, weapons and misleading questions). The limitation presented does not change the fact that human memory is a very personal and comparative aspect and therefore cannot be a foundation for any important decisions. It is important to know that memory changes with time and every consequent attempt to recall the event will be just another skewed interpretation of the event. Eyewitnesses can refute or support the general facts about the case but the details and their testimony should not be put superior to the actual evidence presented in court. Studies have also proven that innocent people have been accused due to eyewitness testimony, this elaborates on the unreliability of it. Our ability to recall an event is affected by the information provided after the event, the level of stress and anxiety we are at during the time of the event also affects it, the presence of weapons also distorts our memory, reconstructive memory is yet another psychological factor that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable, our expectations, age and gender also play a role when giving a testimony. All these factors should be taken into consideration when the evidence provided is eyewitness testimony. The reliability of eyewitness testimony in today’s judicial system is very low and should be analyzed in depth before reaching conclusions. REFERENCES Engelhardt, L. (n. d. ). â€Å"The problem with Eyewitness Testimony†. Agora. Retrieved Jan. 02, 2010 from http://agora. stanford. edu/sjls/Issue%20One/fisher&tversky. html. Eyewitness Testimony Psychology research. (2007). Psychology Degree and A-level online resources. Retrieved Feb. 2, 2010 from http://www. simplypsychology. pwp . blueyonder. co. uk/eyewitness-testimony. html Glassman, William E. (2000). Approaches to Psychology. Buckingham, England: Open UP. Gross, Richard D. (1999). Key Studies in Psychology. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Jarvis, M. , & Russell, J. (2002). Key Ideas in Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Loftus, E. F. , Loftus, G. R. , & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about weapon focus. Law and H uman Behaviour. Memory (psychology) – MSN Encarta. (n. d. ). Retrieved Sept. 14, 2009 from http://encarta. msn. om/encyclopedia_761578303_5/Memory_(psychology). html Miller, Z. (2006, October 14). The Accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony and Its Flaws. Retrieved December 23, 2009, from http://ezinearticles. com/? The- ­Accuracy- ­of- ­Eye- ­Witness- ­Testimony- ­and- ­Its- ­Flaws&id=328261 Science aid: Eyewitness Testimony. (n. d. ) Science Aid: High School, A Level and GCSE Science. Retrieved 13 Dec. 2009 from http://scienceaid. co. uk/psychology/cognition/eyewitness. html Wells, Gary L. , & Olson, Elizabeth A. (2003). Eyewitness Testimony. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University.

The Original Style of Agatha Christie †Literature Essay

The Original Style of Agatha Christie – Literature Essay Free Online Research Papers The Original Style of Agatha Christie Literature Essay Agatha Christie as an English writer develops Miss Marple, one of her famous mystery, short stories characters in a very detailed and distinctive style. Throughout the world, Christie is recognized as the best-known mystery writer. She was once influenced by Edgar Allen Poe, Anna Katherine Green, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and G.K. Chesterton, but today, she influence mystery writing. Her style is original and she has defined mystery novels. Growing up she knew writing was the path for her and she continued writing throughout her entire life. During Agatha Christie’s lifetime, she published 83 books including novels, romances written under the pseudonym of Mary Westmacott, short stories, poetry and the scripts for her plays. Christie was born Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller in Torquay, in the county of Devon. Her father was a man named Fredrick Alvah Miller who unfortunately passed away when she was just a young child. Her mother, Clarissa Miller, encouraged her to write from an early age. Christie was educated at home until age 16 when she was sent to school in Paris where she studied singing and piano. She was shy and had severe stage fright which prevented her from choosing a career in music. Today, Christie is known throughout the world as the queen of crime writing. Agatha Christie published her first detective book in 1920; The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It was in this book that she created her much loved, Belgian detective character, Hercule Poirot. In addition to Miss Marple, Hercule Poirot is also well known as an Agatha Christie character. Later in life, she bought a house and named it â€Å"Styles† after her first novel. Christie’s first major recognition came with The Murder of Roger Ackroyd in 1926 which was followed by some 75 novels that usually made best-seller lists. The Murder of Roger Ackroyd was the first book to be published by Collins and marked the beginning of an author-publisher relationship which lasted for over fifty years. Short stories have always been a favorite to write for Christie. The Witness for the Prosecution was written for Munsey Magazine in 1924 and is often known as her best short story. Her best short stories concern poisoning, her favorite murder weapon. On average in her mystery stories, eig ht out of eleven contain poisonings. In 1914, Agatha married Colonel Archibald Christie. While her husband was at war, she worked as a nurse in a local hospital where she learned about the poisons that later featured in so many of her crime novels. The two had a child five years later and sadly divorced after. Agatha later went on to marry a well- known archeologist by the name of Sir Max Mallowan. Agatha remained happily married to Max and was often quoted saying, â€Å"An archaeologist is the best husband any women can have. The older she gets, the more interested he is in her.† During Agatha Christie’s lifetime, she sold an estimated 300 million books. One of the most popular writers of all time in any language; her books have been translated into more than 100 languages. She is the second most translated English author (the first is Shakespeare), and has been outsold only by the Bible and Shakespeare. In 1955, Christie was he first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America’s highest honor, the Grand Master Award, and in the same year, Witness for the Prosecution was given an Edgar Award by the MWA for best play. The hugely successful play Mousetrap- first written as a radio sketch called Three Blind Mice for the 80th birthday of Queen Mary is said to have made more then three million pounds. The play has become the longest running play in theatrical history and has never been published in England because of its popularity as a play. In 1967, Christie became president of the British Detection Club, and in 1971 she was made Dame of the Britis h Empire. Agatha Christie’s famous character, Miss Jane Marple is an English favorite. Christie does an amazing job with the development of Miss Marple throughout the twenty short stories and twelve novels focused around this typical English character. Her first appearance was in Murder at the Vicarage in 1930 and the last was Sleeping Murder in 1977, forty-seven years later. â€Å"Murder at the Vicarage was published in 1930, but I cannot remember where, when or how I wrote it, why I came to write it, or even what suggested to me that I should select a new character- Miss Marple- to act as the sleuth in the story. Certainly at the time I had no intention of continuing her for the rest of my life. I did not know that she was to become a rival of Hercule Poirot.† When we first meet Miss Jane Marple, she is the stereotypical spinster of the 19th century. The name Miss Marple derives from when Agatha Christie was delayed on the Manchester to Sheffield Hope Valley line at the station of Marple in Marple, Stockport, England. Miss Marple was inspired by Dr. Sheppard’s shrewd sister in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd and certain friends of her grandmother, as well as her grandmother. When Agatha Christie created Miss Marple she did not expect to continue writing about her for the rest of her life. Miss Marples first appearance hooked readers around the world. Miss Marple is able to solve difficult crimes; no crime can arise without reminding her of some parallel incident in the history of her time. She is able to rely on her common sense and village experience to solve crimes. The crime is almost always murder. There is never any attempt to understand the criminal: the murder has to be caught and punished. Miss Marple expects the worst of people, and in this view point she is often right. Human nature, in her observation, is the same everywhere. She does not look like your average detective either. Miss Marple was already an old lady in the first book, around age 65 which proved most unfortunate because she was going to have to last a long time in Christie’s life. She is tall and thin, with a pink, wrinkled face; she has pale blue eyes and snowy white hair which she wears piled upon her head in an old fashioned manor. Miss Marple was often explaining, â€Å"The young people think the old people are fools, but the old people know t hat young people are fools.† Miss Marple is not a likely detective but she always succeeds where the police have failed. A Murder is Announced Agatha Christie’s 50th novel, is regarded by most as the Best Miss Marple novel. Even though she is often seen with her knitting needles, when it comes to solving mysteries, she turns out to have a sharp logical mind. She usually makes an analogy with some village occurrence or character when explaining her reasoning. Overall, Miss Marple has a curiosity as wide as the world. She is a gleeful gossip and not especially nice. Over the years she has modernized and became nicer. Thirteen of the twenty short stories about Miss Marple can be found in The Thirteen Problems (Also known as The Tuesday Club Murders, as it was published in the United States.) In addition to Miss Marple, Hercule Poirot is also well known as an Agatha Christie character. Poirot used logical and rational methods where as Miss Marple relied on her feminine sens itivity and empathy to solve crimes. Marple draws parallels between the everyday mysteries that puzzle her neighbors, and cases of national importance. In her diary, Christie explained that she had always found Poirot insufferable. She had a great fondness for Miss Marple on the other hand. When Agatha Christie passed away on January 12, 1976 in Wallingford, Oxforshire, she was believed to have left one last novel. The novel featured her famous character, Miss Jane Marple and was published 36 years after she wrote it. It was Miss Marples last case. Agatha Christie’s autobiography was also published after her death. In 56 years, Christie wrote 66 detective novels. In the Miss Marple short stories, The Thirteen Stories was a collection of Agatha Christie’s mysteries. In the story, The Tuesday Night Club, you meet six characters; Raymond West, Miss Marple Joyce Lemprie’re, Sir Henry Clithering, Dr. Pender, and Mr. Pethrick. Christie briefly describes each character through Raymond’s perspective. In the story, the group starts a conversation centered around â€Å"unsolved mysteries.† The discussion intrigues all six people, and they decide to form a club named â€Å"The Tuesday Night Club.† The club is to meet every week, and each member in turn has to propound a problem. Some mystery of which they have personal knowledge, and to which, of course they know the answer. The rest of the members play a game of guessing as to what the solution to the unsolved mystery is. The first mystery comes from Sir Henry and is about who put arsenical poisoning in Mr. Joneses wives food. In the end, all members make a guess and only the clever Miss Marple solves the mystery. This surprises the other members and Miss Marple simply explains to them that, they don’t as much of life as she does, due to the fact that she is older, and has lived much longer. When reading this short story, Christie does not include many images other than those related to her famous character, Miss Marple. The story is depicted threw the eye’s of her nephew Raymond and told by Sir Henry, so there is some image development of them as well. The theme of the story is that Miss Marple is able to rely on her common sense and village experience to help her solve the mystery. Agatha Christie’s famous character Miss Marple is more at home in full length novels, but according to Edward D. Hoch, there are some high spots among her shorter cases as well. Although I have not read Agatha Christie’s longer stories, I feel that there is room for further development of Miss Marple as a character in a longer story. The next story comes from Dr. Pender, The Idol House of Astarte. He tells a story from his past that resulted in the death of Richard Haydon in a most mysterious way. Richard was murdered right in front of all other members in Dr. Pender’s story, yet no one could explain how it was that he had been stabbed. Many of the characters believed that he was killed by an evil presence that was felt in the area. When the story is finished, the group takes turns guessing as to how Richard Haydon was murdered. Once again, the clever Miss Marple uses he deductive reasoning, and is able to correctly guess the murder, his cousin Elliot Haydon. The Idol House of Astarte includes more images then the previous story, The Tuesday Night Club. The images are provided in the attempt to lead the reader to the murder of Richard. If you read into the story the image descriptions lead to the murderer. The theme of this story is clearly to show just how clever Miss Marple truly is. Miss Marple doe s it again and solves the mystery with no problem at all; in fact she is able to clearly explain what happened and how she was able to come to her conclusion. Many believe that Agatha Christies best stories are those concerning poisoning as a murder weapon. Agatha Christie as well enjoys poison as her murder weapon in stories. Even though poisoning is a very entertaining, who done it, type of murder weapon, I found it very intriguing that she would use something such as getting stabbed in such a mysterious way. In the story, Ingots of Gold, Raymond West, tells a story, but there is a twist- he doesn’t know the solution. The story involves missing gold and the disappearance of Raymond’s friend, John Newman. As the story pans out, Raymond and the others find John tied up in a hole in his own back yard. John explains that he does not remember much, but he had noticed some men unloading something from a small boat and strolled down to se e what was going on. All he could tell was that something was heavy. Before he could observe anymore, two men rendered him unconscious. When he came to, he was arriving at his house and then being thrown into the ditch. John attempted to place the blame on a man named Kevin but there was no solid evidence. In the end, Raymond knew neither who had taken the missing gold nor who had assaulted his friend John. When he asked everyone in The Tuesday Night Club their views on the situation, both Miss Marple and Sir Henry both had solved the mystery. Joh n himself had stolen the gold and faked his own injuries. Miss Marple also concludes that the so called gardener was John’s partner in crime. Raymond was once again stunned by her wits; he had never suspected his friend John. Ingots of Gold had more images then the previous short stories I have read by Agatha Christie. This particular story does not include murder but rather theft and kidnapping and because of this, is much more descriptive. The placement of characters and the setting plays a key role in the deciphering of the story. The theme of this story is to trust no one, but your own instincts. Raymond West was unable to solve this mystery because he didn’t clearly look at the facts which could have easily led him to in the least, suspect John. Miss Marple ever so clever took what she knew and applied it to this â€Å"unsolved† mystery. Miss Marple and Sir Henry clearly viewed John as a possible suspect from the beginning as detectives would do. It is o ften said that Agatha Christie shows her reader the necessary clues, but she often presents the clues so cunningly that the reader does not see the significance until the crime is solved. Many believe that Agatha Christies best stories are those concerning poisoning as a murder weapon. Agatha Christie as well enjoys poison as her murder weapon in stories. Agatha Christie is an amazing author and will always be known for her great literary accomplishments. The character development portrayed through Miss Marple is astonishing and has not been outdone since the books were published. Agatha’s works have sold more then any others aside from Shakespeare and the Bible. She has strongly influenced the development of the detective story. 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How to Prepare Common Base Solutions

How to Prepare Common Base Solutions Prepare solutions of common bases using this handy reference table which lists the amount of solute  (concentrated base solution) that is used to make 1 L of base solution. Stir the base into a large volume of water and then dilute the solution to make one liter. Use care when adding sodium hydroxide to water, since this is an exothermic reaction that generates considerable heat. Be sure to use borosilicate glass and consider immersing the container in a bucket of ice to keep the heat down. Use solid sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide to prepare solutions of those bases. Use concentrated (14.8 M) ammonium hydroxide for those preparations. Base Solution Peparations   Name / Formula / F.W. Concentration Amount/Liter Ammonium Hydroxide 6 M 405 mL NH4OH 3 M 203 F.W. 35.05 1 M 68 0.5 M 34 0.1 M 6.8 Potassium Hydroxide 6 M 337 g KOH 3 M 168 F.W. 56.11 1 M 56 0.5 M 28 0.1 M 5.6 Sodium Hydroxide 6 M 240 g NaOH 3 M 120 F.W. 40.00 1 M 40 0.5 M 20 0.1 M 4.0

In the Heart of the Country by J.M.Coetzze Essay

In the Heart of the Country by J.M.Coetzze - Essay Example I am a miserable black virgin, and my story is my story, even if it is a dull black blind stupid miserable story, ignorant of its meaning and of all its many possible untapped happy variants" ( 5). The novel represents how the colonial rule has left deep imprints on the native people beginning from the political, social and cultural levels, attacking their customs, traditions and languages, in the process destroying their inner world conditioned by the restrictions of the patriarchal society. Education Magda has no education except what she reads, and this lack of context for her experience is part of her madness. She is the daughter of an Afrikaner sheep farmer in a farm at the interiors of South Africa. She has grown up in tough surroundings detached from love, her patriarchal father is the strict disciplinarian and the servants obey his military-type commands. She just exists, disregarded and ignored. She falters in her narrations too often, in between and many times in one paragr aph. She lacks clarity, purpose and connectivity making it difficult for the reader to give opinionated statements or arrive at conclusions. Magda often regrets that she is denied the regular school education and as such she finds her in the poor position. She laments, â€Å"How do I, a lonely spinster, come to know such as a thing? It is not for nothing that I spend evenings humped over the victory. Words are words. I have never pretended to embrace the night's experience". (27) After the first reading, one has to engage in the exercise of probity as to what has been read, and what portion of it is fantasy and how far it is from reality. What is Magda doing, is it the flight of her imagination, calculated fabrication, or directionless and destination less delusion? It is difficult to fathom. She seems to suffer from an unidentified mental illness and lacks clear perspectives. The colonial rulers, the educational institutions whether state-run or managed by the missionaries, they u sed it as a weapon to strengthen the empire and to brainwash the gullible poor Africans. It is also an important administrative tool to exercise control and rule the people. The dividing line between insanity and reality is not thin. The ground realities and the lucid dreams as visualized by Magda are poles apart. When all hopes about life are lost in the maze of adverse circumstances, the only alternative for such an individual is to hang on to life and to ravel in fantasy and enjoy the dreams. The narrator does not talk about the goals achieved and goals achievable, and the intended goals of her world of fantasy. The reader has no other option but to scrutinize her emotional world on an ongoing basis, to investigate as to what exactly the narrator wishes to convey. Her mind is like the busy railway junction wherein a thousand mad trains arrive and depart not according to a fixed time-table, but as per the exigencies of the situation. A serious issue is presented and soon its negat ive impact is nullified by presenting another set of facts. The reader gets the impression that Magda has murdered her father and his wife with an axe, but soon one finds that he is there hale and hearty. After killing her father, (actually she does not kill) she states, â€Å"I only wanted to talk, I have never learned to talk with another person. It has always been that the word has come down to me and I have passed it on." (101).The reader now concludes that it is the motivated